Handbook of the Law 1

You yourself know, venerable father Primasius, that, being aware of my life and my way of living, just as I do not deny that I have a zeal for the divine law, so I do not presume to call myself a teacher, fearing that prophetic word: 'But to the sinner God said: Why dost thou declare my justices, and take my covenant in thy mouth?' But while the advantage of your province had compelled you, among your other most reverend fellow-bishops, to journey even as far as Constantinople, out of a feeling of courtesy we came into acquaintance and conversation. And you, after that custom of yours, asked nothing before this: whether there were anyone among the Greeks who burned with zeal and understanding for the study of the divine books.

To this I replied that I had seen a certain man, Paul by name, a Persian by race, who had been instructed in the school of the Syrians in the city of Nisibis, where the divine law is handed down by public masters in order and according to rule, just as among us in worldly studies grammar and rhetoric are. 2. Then, having long been asked whether I had anything from his sayings, I said that I had read certain rules with which he was accustomed to imbue the minds of his disciples—instructed in the surface of the divine Scriptures—before he laid open the depths of exposition, so that they might in the meantime come to know the intention and order of those very subjects which are treated in the divine law, lest the several matters should be taught scatteredly and confusedly, but according to rule.

You, father, judged—by what reasoning I do not know—that these matters were necessary for all Christians who wish to be instructed; and though I long made excuses, you pressed me to the point of the shamelessness of publication. Hence I have gathered these regular precepts into two very brief little books, adding, as far as I could, a useful form to the very wording, so that, as though a master were questioning and disciples answering, each point might be stated briefly and very clearly. And lest any confusion should arise through the negligence of the copyists, as is wont to happen, I set the Greek letter [Delta] before the master and [Mu] before the disciples, so that by means of foreign characters, which Latin writing does not employ, every error might be utterly removed. 3. There are other splendid monuments of that man:

for I also heard him expounding the epistle of the blessed Paul to the Romans with a subtlety, as I think, greater than that with which I, from his own mouth, took it down lest it slip from memory; but the thorns of cares and business hinder us from bearing any fruit in the Lord's field. This one act of boldness is enough, that out of confessed poverty I dare to cast these two mites into the divine treasury. There are those who load it with talents, from which provision may be doled out to the needy; who can offer to the divine sanctuaries the gems of virtues, the gold of life, the silver of knowledge. To me nothing more is at hand than these two mites, and these themselves borrowed from another.

But indeed I promise myself much from the Gospel examiner, because, although others may be able to give precious things out of most precious treasures and many things out of very many, I nevertheless, because I gave my whole, offered more. Book One. 1. On the parts of the divine law. [Delta] Into how many primary parts is the knowledge of the divine law divided? [Mu] Into two, of which one pertains properly to the very surface of the wording, the other lies in the things which Scripture itself teaches us. 2. What things pertain to the surface of the Scriptures? [Delta] How many are the things pertaining properly to the very surface of the wording? [Mu] Five. [Delta] Which? [Mu] The kind of wording, authority, author, mode, and order. 2. [Delta] How many are the kinds of wording? [Mu] Four:

for it is either historical, or prophetic, or proverbial, or simply teaching. 3. On history. [Delta] What is history? [Mu] The narration of past or present things. 2. [Delta] In which books is the divine history contained? [Mu] In seventeen: Genesis, one; Exodus, one; Leviticus, one; Numbers, one; Deuteronomy, one; Joshua, one; Judges, one; Ruth, one; Kings—according to us four, according to the Hebrews two—; the Gospels, four: according to Matthew, according to Mark, according to Luke, according to John; the Acts of the Apostles, one. [Delta] Do no other books pertain to the divine history? [Mu] Many add two of Chronicles, one of Job, one of Tobit, one of Ezra, one of Judith, one of Esther, two of Maccabees.

[Delta] Why do these books not run among the canonical Scriptures? [Mu] Because among the Hebrews too they were received with this same distinction, as Jerome and others testify. 3. [Delta] Is no other kind found in these books? [Mu] The rest occur, but not principally; for although the persons by whom they are spoken first spoke according to the other kinds, yet by him who wrote the book they are reported as history: just as the blessings of the patriarch Jacob were spoken by him indeed as prophecies, but Moses, who reports them, narrates them in historical order. And when Moses himself says that in the beginning heaven and earth were made, he speaks indeed by a prophetic spirit, but narrates in the historical kind.

Likewise history sometimes sounds even proverbial, as is, "The trees went forth to anoint a king over themselves." Sometimes it simply teaches, as is, "Hear, O Israel, the Lord your God is one God." Yet all things, as I said, are woven together in the historical kind. 4. [Delta] In what does history excel the other kinds? [Mu] In that the others are subject to it, but it to none. 5. [Delta] What has it in common with the others? [Mu] It has in common with simple teaching that both seem plain on the surface, though for the most part they are difficult to understand; for the others are the reverse. 4. On prophecy. [Delta] What is prophecy? [Mu] The manifestation, by divine inspiration, of hidden things past, present, or future. 2.

[Delta] Give an instance of prophecy concerning past things. [Mu] "By the word of the Lord the heavens were established," and "for he himself spoke, and they were made," and "In the beginning God made heaven and earth." [Delta] Give an instance concerning present things. [Mu] The prophet saw in the present the knowledge of the theft committed by Gehazi, and the apostle Peter that of Ananias and Sapphira. [Delta] Give an instance concerning future things. [Mu] "Behold, a virgin shall conceive in her womb and bear a son, and his name shall be called Emmanuel." 3. [Delta] Why was "hidden" placed in the definition? [Mu] Because if anyone should speak of things already known, even though they be future, he is nonetheless not a prophet, just as we, when we proclaim the resurrection, are not prophets. But if he should make manifest the hidden things of any time, then he is a prophet, as we have already shown.

[Delta] Prove this by a testimony of divine Scripture. [Mu] The apostle Paul, in the first epistle to the Corinthians, says, "If the whole church come together into one place, and all speak with tongues, and there enter in the unlearned, will they not say that you are mad? But if all prophesy, and there enter in one who is an unbeliever or unlearned, he is convicted by all, he is judged by all; the hidden things of his heart are made manifest, and so, falling on his face, he will worship God, declaring that 'God is manifestly among you.'" Behold, the apostle marked the power of prophecy in the manifestation of hidden things. But many other such things are also found in what follows in the same epistle and in the rest. 4. [Delta] Why did we add "by divine inspiration"?

[Mu] Because those who, whether by the prompting of demons or by other means, speak of hidden things, although they may be called prophets, are nevertheless not numbered among the authors of the divine Scriptures. 5. [Delta] In which books is prophecy received? [Mu] In seventeen: the Psalms, one book of 150; Hosea, one book; Isaiah, one book; Joel, one book; Amos, one book; Obadiah, one book; Jonah, one book; Micah, one book; Nahum, one book; Habakkuk, one book; Zephaniah, one book; Jeremiah, one book; Ezekiel, one book; Daniel, one book; Haggai, one book; Zechariah, one book; Malachi, one book. As for the Apocalypse of John, however, it is very much doubted among the Easterners. 6. [Delta] Is no other kind found in these books?

[Mu] The rest occur, but not principally, except for the proof of the prophecy, just as in Isaiah a kind of history is recounted concerning the kings Ahaz and Hezekiah; but the intent of prophecy is not to weave together deeds, but to confirm the outcome of things foretold. And in Jeremiah, when it is said, "O earth, earth, hear the word of the Lord," by "earth" it proverbially names the men dwelling in it. And when Isaiah says, "Not such a fast have I chosen, says the Lord, but loose every knot of iniquity," and the rest, he seems simply to teach, but he proclaims these things as one commanded by the prophetic Spirit. 7. [Delta] What has prophecy in common with the others? [Mu] It has in common with proverbs that both are difficult on the surface, but most are not hard to understand. 5.

On proverbs. [Delta] What is the proverbial kind? [Mu] A certain figurative manner of speech, sounding one thing and meaning another, and admonishing in the present time. 2. [Delta] In which books is this received? [Mu] In two: the one book of the Proverbs of Solomon, and the one book of Jesus, son of Sirach. [Delta] Is no other book placed under this kind? [Mu] Some add the book which is called Wisdom and the Song of Songs. 3. [Delta] Do other kinds occur in these books as well? [Mu] Only simple teaching occurs, but not principally, except for the explanation or commendation of the proverbs, as is, "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 4. [Delta] What has the proverbial kind in common with the others?

[Mu] It has in common with prophecy that it seems difficult on the surface, though for the most part it is not so in understanding. 5. [Delta] What does the proverbial kind have proper to itself? [Mu] That neither history nor prophecy is mingled with it, and it alone is so understood that in a certain way the surface of the words is removed. 6. [Delta] Why is it lawful for us in this kind alone not to consider the very text of Scripture but the sense, whereas in the other three we admit allegory mystically in such a way that it is necessary to maintain the trustworthiness of the narrative? [Mu] Because if, apart from the proverbial kind, we should wish to receive allegory everywhere in such a way that the truth of the narrative were weakened, we would give place to enemies to interpret the divine books however they wished. 7.

[Delta] In how many ways is allegory recognized in the divine law? [Mu] In four: either according to transference, or metaphor, as is, "The Lord was angry" and "He came down," and the like, which, to indicate causes, are transferred from human movements to God; or according to imagination, or hypotyposis, as is in the Gospel, "A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho"; and again, the parable of the vineyard and the husbandmen; for the order of those things which were done by Christ is reported as fulfilled, as it were under the image of another person and matter; or according to comparison, or likeness, as he says, "The kingdom of heaven is like a grain of mustard seed," and the rest;

for there is no narrative, as is woven together in the previous example, but only the effects of causes are compared; or according to the proverbial mode, as is, "Drink water out of your own vessels and out of your own cistern and out of your own wells," since Scripture wishes to warn that carnal concupiscence is to be restrained within the licence of marriage. 6. On simple teaching. [Delta] What is simple teaching? [Mu] That by which we are simply instructed concerning faith or morals in the present time. 2. [Delta] Why did it receive this name? [Mu] Because all Scripture indeed teaches something, but under the other kinds which we have mentioned above; this kind, however, neither weaves a history nor a prophecy nor speaks proverbially, but only simply teaches.

3. [Delta] Which books pertain to simple teaching? [Mu] Seventeen canonical ones, that is: Ecclesiastes, one book; the epistles of the apostle Paul: to the Romans, one; to the Corinthians, two; to the Galatians, one; to the Ephesians, one; to the Philippians, one; to the Colossians, one; to the Thessalonians, two; to Timothy, two; to Titus, one; to Philemon, one; to the Hebrews, one; the first of the blessed Peter to the nations, and the first of the blessed John. [Delta] Do no other books pertain to simple teaching? [Mu] Very many add five others, which are called the canonical epistles of the apostles, that is: James, one; the second of Peter; Jude, one; two of John. 4. [Delta] Is no other kind found in these books? [Mu] The rest occur, but not principally, except for the proof of the teaching.

For when the apostle says, "And when I had come to Troas for the Gospel of Christ, a door was opened to me," and where he says that he withstood Peter to the face, he seems to weave a history. Again, when he says, "Behold, I tell you a mystery: we shall indeed all rise, but we shall not all be changed," he undertakes the work of a prophet. Likewise when he says, "The Cretans are always liars, evil beasts, lazy bellies," he uses proverbial words: yet all these are inserted, as we have said, for the proof of the teaching. 5. [Delta] What does simple teaching have in common with the other kinds? [Mu] It has in common with history that both seem easy on the surface, though for the most part they are difficult on inspection or in understanding. 7. On the authority of the Scriptures.

[Delta] How is the authority of the divine books considered? [Mu] In that some are of perfect authority, some of middle, some of none. [Delta] Which are of perfect authority? [Mu] Those which we have numbered without qualification as canonical in the several kinds. [Delta] Which are of middle authority? [Mu] Those which we said are added by many. [Delta] Which are of no authority? [Mu] All the rest. 2. [Delta] Are these distinctions found in all the kinds of wording? [Mu] In history and simple teaching, all of them; for in prophecy no books of middle authority are found except the Apocalypse, nor in the proverbial kind, which is wholly without them. 8. On the writers of the divine books.

[Delta] By what means do we recognize the writers of the divine books? [Mu] In three ways: either from the titles and prefaces, as the prophetic books and the epistles of the apostle; or from the titles only, as the evangelists; or from the tradition of the ancients, as Moses is handed down to have written the first five books of the history, although the title does not say this, nor does he himself report, "The Lord said to me," but as of another, "The Lord said to Moses." Likewise the book of Joshua is handed down to have been written by him by whom it is named, and Samuel is said to have written the first book of Kings. 2. Moreover it must be known that the authors of certain books are altogether unknown, as of Judges and Ruth and the last of the third of Kings and other similar ones;

which must therefore be believed to have been divinely arranged, so that the other divine books too might be known to have obtained so great a height of authority not by the merit of their authors, but by the grace of the Holy Spirit alone. 9. On the modes of the Scriptures. [Delta] How many are the modes of divine Scripture? [Mu] Two: for they are written either in Hebrew metres in their own language, or in simple prose. [Delta] Which are written in metres? [Mu] As the Psalms and the history of Job and Ecclesiastes and certain parts among the prophets. [Delta] Which are written in simple prose? [Mu] All the rest. 2. [Delta] Why are they not written among us in the same metres? [Mu] Because no diction preserves metre in another language, unless it change the force and order of the words. 10. On the order of the Scriptures.

[Delta] What is the order of the divine volumes? [Mu] In that some are of the Old Testament, some of the New. [Delta] Which pertain to the New Testament? [Mu] The Gospels, as was said above, four; the apostolic epistles; and the Acts. [Delta] Which pertain to the Old Testament? [Mu] All the rest. 2. [Delta] What are the things proper to the Old and the New Testament? [Mu] The intent of the Old is to show forth the New by figures and foretellings; that of the New is to kindle human minds to the glory of eternal blessedness. 11. On the things which Scripture teaches us. [Delta] Since enough has been said about those things which pertained properly to the very surface of Scripture, I now inquire what are the things which Scripture itself teaches us. [Mu] Three things, namely:

for it speaks either of God, or of the present age, or of the age to come. 12. In how many significations does Scripture speak of God? [Delta] In how many significations does Scripture speak of God? [Mu] In four: for it either signifies his essence, which in Latin we also call substance, as is, "I am who I am"; or the Persons, or, according to the Greeks, the subsistences, as is, "Go, teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit"; or his operation, as it is written, "according to the working of the might of his power, which he wrought in Christ, raising him from the dead and making him to sit at his right hand";

or his relation to creatures, as is, "Now to the King of the ages, incorruptible, invisible, the only God, be honour and glory unto the ages of ages." 13. On the significations of the divine essence. [Delta] In how many ways is the divine essence signified? [Mu] In two: principally and consequently. 2. [Delta] By what words principally? [Mu] By eight: for it is called either God, or Lord, or at once Lord God, or Adonai, or Sabaoth, or Eli, or Elohim, or He-Who-Is. [Delta] Do these words signify nothing other than God? [Mu] Two only are sometimes said improperly of others as well, namely God and Lord, as Paul the apostle witnesses, "for there are many gods and many lords";

and "You are gods, and all of you sons of the Most High." But the remaining six are never said except of God. [Delta] What do these words signify concerning God? [Mu] Not what he is, but that he is; for what God is cannot be comprehended. 3. [Delta] In what ways is God signified consequently? [Mu] When it expounds the Persons, or his operation, or his relation to creatures. For even when it names the Father, although the first hearing signifies one who begets, consequently we understand God; likewise also when it names the Son or the Holy Spirit. And when it says "almighty," although the first speech announces his operation, consequently we understand God.

And when it says "invisible," although it principally sounds him who cannot be seen by mortals, and from our relation assigns to him who made us that which we are not, consequently we nevertheless understand God. 14. On the significations of the Trinity. [Delta] In how many ways does Scripture signify the Persons, or subsistences, of the Godhead? [Mu] Likewise in two: principally and consequently: principally, as when we say, "Father, Son, Holy Spirit"; consequently, through those things by which the essence, or the operation, or the relation to creatures is signified.

For both when I say "God," which pertains to the essence, and when I say "almighty," which pertains to the operation, and when I say "immutable," which is said from the relation to creatures, although the first hearing perceives something other, yet I consequently understand Father and Son and Holy Spirit, whether together or singly, to be God. 15. In how many ways is the Father signified? [Delta] In how many ways is the Father signified? [Mu] By the name of Father one Person is understood, but not in one way: for it is said properly with respect to the Son, but commonly with respect to creation; there by the truth of nature, here by the goodness of grace. 2. [Delta] Is the Father signified in this one way? [Mu] Principally in this;

for consequently, also from those things which in any way signify the essence of the deity, or the operation, or the relation to creatures. Moreover, from the term "Son" the Father is consequently understood; and by the name of the Holy Spirit the Father himself, of course, whose Spirit it is, is understood by implication. 3. [Delta] In the Trinity itself, is the term "Father" ascribed to no other Person? [Mu] It is read as said of the Son, "Father of the age to come," but this is said according to the flesh and figuratively, not properly, so that it might be shown that he himself is the cause and begetter of our blessedness, because through the resurrection of his flesh human nature begins both to hope for and to receive the life to come. 16. In how many ways is the Son signified?

[Delta] In how many ways does Scripture speak of the Son? [Mu] In five: for sometimes his deity alone is, as it were, signified, and consequently the assumption of flesh is understood, as is, "the only-begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the Father"; but sometimes only the man assumed by him, and the deity consequently, as is, "in these last days he has spoken to us in the Son"; sometimes both at once, as is, "Have this mind in you which was also in Christ Jesus, who, being in the form of God, did not consider it robbery to be equal with God, but emptied himself, taking the form of a servant"; sometimes those things which are principally to be referred to the deity seem to be said even with respect to the body, as is, "the Son of Man, who is in heaven";

again, sometimes those things which specially refer to the flesh seem to be ascribed to the divinity, as is, "for had they known, they would never have crucified the Lord of glory." 2. [Delta] Why does Scripture speak of the Son in these five ways? [Mu] It speaks distinctly according to the natures, in order to show their unconfused properties; it speaks in common, in order to assert the unity; and it alternates the human with the divine and the divine with the human, in order that both may be shown to belong to one and undivided Person. 3. [Delta] In how many ways is the Person of the Son wont to be signified? [Mu] In two; and this too, principally and consequently: principally indeed it is signified when Christ is said absolutely;

for when others are called christs, something is added, as is, "the christ of the Lord" or "my christs"; but he alone who is naturally the Son of God is called Christ absolutely, whence it is declared that this is proper to him alone: consequently, however, the Person of the Son is understood also from those three by which the Father too is understood, and from the very term "Father," and from that of the Holy Spirit, because the Spirit is called the Spirit of both the Father and the Son. 17. In how many ways is the Person of the Holy Spirit signified? [Delta] In how many ways is the Person of the Holy Spirit signified? [Mu] Principally in one, as it is read, "Go, baptize all nations in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit," and again, "for you are the temple of the Holy Spirit";

but consequently, also from the grace which he himself bestows, which is likewise itself called the Holy Spirit, as is, "The Holy Spirit shall come upon you" and "Receive the Holy Spirit": likewise also from those things by which the divine essence, or operation, or relation to creatures is signified, as we said of the Son; but the Person of the Father and of the Son also signifies the Holy Spirit consequently, because whatever of these we say, we also understand consequently the Person of the Holy Spirit either as co-operating or as consubstantial. 18. What do the Persons of the Trinity have in common or as proper? [Delta] What do the several Persons of the Trinity have as proper?

[Mu] That the Father is never called the Son, nor, in conjoined speech, the Holy Spirit, although separately he can be called both "spirit" and "holy"; nor can the Son properly be called Father, or conjointly the Holy Spirit; nor, again, is the name of Father or of Son ascribed to the Holy Spirit. 2. [Delta] What things are common to these Persons? [Mu] All those which are known to pertain to the signification either of the essence, or of the operation, or of the relation to creatures; whence it is also established that the Trinity is of one substance [under the terms Father and Son and Holy Spirit]. 3. [Delta] What is signified in these Persons? [Mu] Not what they are, but that they are; for what they are, as we said above concerning God, speech cannot explain. 19.

In how many ways is the efficacy of the Godhead signified? [Delta] By how many kinds is the efficiency, or operation, of the Godhead designated, which the Greeks call energeia? [Mu] By four: either by creation, or by providence concerning creatures, or by the preparation of future things concerning them, or by the issue or outcome of the things prepared. 2. [Delta] Give the things pertaining to operation. [Mu] As when he is called good, chiefly from this, that he has made and makes to be the things which were not; and wise, in that we discern all things ordered by him so marvellously; and strong, in that he was able to fulfil the things which he so well and wisely willed. [Delta] Are these in God by essence or by will? [Mu] God is simple, nor is there in him essence other than will;

whence also all the names of his operation, although they differ among themselves in their definitions, yet in him no difference or diversity is found. So then he acts both by essence, or nature, because nothing is accidental to him; and yet also by will, because he effects nothing by necessity or by constraint. For God does not operate as fire burns by the necessity of its nature, or as bees by natural necessity fashion their combs, or spiders their webs; but God is said to make by nature, or essence—lest the will should be shown in him as though something else—and therefore by will, because he is compelled to operate nothing, but essentially wills and by will subsists. 3. [Delta] Give specifically the things pertaining to creation.

[Mu] As when he is called maker, craftsman, creator, and the like, although he is also said to make in the sense of to dispose, as is, "he has wrought salvation in the midst of the earth," but then it is said according to the kind of providence. [Delta] Give the things which pertain specially to providence. [Mu] As when he is called helper, foreknowing, almighty, and the like. [Delta] Give the things pertaining to the preparation of future things. [Mu] As when he is called the way, and hope, and refuge, and the like. [Delta] Give the things pertaining to the issue of the things prepared. [Mu] As when he is called exultation, joy, and the rest of the like. But all the things pertaining to operation are recognized not only in names, but also in similar verbs or revelations. 4.

[Delta] Is the divine operation declared only in these ways? [Mu] There is another, figurative mode, when the divine operation is signified from human things. [Delta] In how many ways does this happen? [Mu] In two: either when the things which pertain to our soul are said figuratively of God, as is fury and anger and soul and repentance; or those things which are handled with respect to the body or through the body, as is feet, hands, fingers. For sometimes even human operations are transferred to God, as when it is said, "Take hold of arms and shield." Yet all these are to be joined to the aforesaid four kinds of operation according to the quality of the sentences. 20. In how many ways is God signified from his relation to creatures? [Delta] In how many ways is God signified from his relation to creatures?

[Mu] In two: by affirmation and by negation. By affirmation indeed, when those things are said of God which in the same manner befit no creature, as is "simple" and "ancient of days" and "before all things spirit," that is, uncircumscribed, and "first" and "last" and the like. For all these are said of God because, by comparison with him, they befit no creature. But by negation the relation is made when, by a privative prefix, those things are denied in God which are in a creature, as is "unbegotten," "incorporeal," "uncreated," "immortal," "incorruptible," "impassible," and the like. 2. [Delta] What then? Are these words never said of a creature? [Mu] They are indeed said, but not according to the same reasoning.

For when a man is called simple, it is not because he is not composite (for it belongs to God alone to be of simple essence), but a man is called simple because he does not have the duplicity of guile. So too when something is called invisible, it is not because it cannot, insofar as it exists, be seen by anyone (for this belongs to God alone), but because it lies hidden from some; and likewise the rest. 3. [Delta] What are the relational terms which are said of God in such a way that they cannot be said of a creature? [Mu] Those which are in him supreme and singular, as "unbegotten," "everlasting," "without beginning," and the like. Book Two. 1. What does Scripture signify concerning the present age?

[Delta] Since enough has been said in how many ways Scripture speaks of God, I now inquire what Scripture, speaking of the present age, signifies. [Mu] Five things, namely: either its generation, that is, its creation; or its governance; or the things accidental to natures; or the things befalling wills; or the things following upon the outcome of the will. 2. How many modes and differences in the operation of creatures Scripture has set forth. [Delta] In how many ways does Scripture signify the generation of the age? [Mu] In three:

for either something is written to have been made by the will of God alone, as is, "In the beginning God made heaven and earth"; or by will together with voice, whether preceptive, as is, "Let there be light" and "Let there be a firmament," or deliberative, as is, "Let us make man in our image and likeness"; or by will, voice, and definition, as is, "Increase and multiply and fill the earth," and again, "Let the earth bring forth the green herb bearing seed after its kind, and the fruit-bearing tree making fruit, whose seed is in itself after its likeness upon the earth," and the rest which, after the seventh day even to the end of the age, he works by parts: for from that definition they proceed. 2. [Delta] Is there any difference among these three?

[Mu] There is, because those things which were made by will alone or also by voice were made newly, but those which were made by definition were made similar to those which I said were made newly: and again, those indeed in the first six days, but these as long as the age stands. 3. [Delta] Give the order of the things made through the six days. [Mu] In the very beginning of the founding were made heaven, earth, angels, air, and water. [Delta] Prove that the angels and the waters and the air were made.

[Master] That they were made is shown from other passages of Scripture, as: 'who makes his angels spirits,' and 'Praise him, all his angels,' and 'Let the waters that are above the heavens praise the name of the Lord, for he spoke, and they were made.' And in the Scriptures the air is indicated by the name of 'heaven,' as in 'the birds of heaven,' since it is certain that birds fly in the air; and we have shown that heaven was made. That these things—namely the angels—came before the rest of the creatures, both Scripture demonstrates, since in the praises and blessings they are set before the other creatures, and reason confirms it: for it was fitting that the heavenly creature should precede the earthly. And concerning the waters, Scripture itself says that 'the Spirit of God was borne over the waters.'

[Disciple] Follow the order of creation. [Master] In the beginning, on the first day light was made; on the second day the firmament; on the third the sea and the things that spring from the earth; on the fourth the lights of heaven; on the fifth the swimming and flying creatures; on the sixth the remaining animals and man. [Disciple] What difference is there in the making of these creatures themselves? [Master] That some were made out of nothing, such as heaven, earth, and the rest that we said were made up to the completion of the first day; but some were made out of things already made on the first day. [Disciple] Give proofs of these. [Master] That whenever Scripture wishes to show that things were made out of something, either it states it openly, as in 'Let the earth bring forth' and 'Let the waters bring forth' and the like;

or else by a subtle indication of the words, as when it says 'Let there be a firmament,' which surely signifies that there had been something fluid and liquid, that is, the waters; and because these were now shown to be made solid, what came into being was called 'firmament.' And again, it called 'lights' by derivation those things which were made on the fourth day, in order to show that they were made from the light wrought on the first day. But among those things which were made on the first day, nothing is declared, either openly or by a subtle word, to have been made from another. [Disciple] Is nothing, then, shown to have been made out of things non-existent after the first day? [Master] Only the soul of man; and in this it must be noted that, whereas other things were made either out of nothing or out of things already made, man alone is composed of both.

[Disciple] What other distinctions do we ascribe to the creatures? [Master] That those things which were made in the first six days did not come about naturally nor by way of likeness; but the rest, which come about naturally, are born by divine ordinance—excepting, of course, miracles. [Disciple] Give the third distinction. [Master] That some of the creatures, namely the rational ones, were made for their own sake, such as angels and men; but the rest are known to have been made not for their own sake, but for the sake of the aforesaid angels or men. Man, indeed, is to be understood as made principally for his own sake with respect to his soul; for with respect to his body, consequently so. [Disciple] But what then? Did not other creatures, besides men and angels, have need of one another?

[Master] They did indeed need one another—not for utility, but for adornment; for they are useful not to themselves but to the angels or to men, for whose sake they are also known to have been made. But they do furnish adornment to one another in turn: for the heaven was unadorned without the heavenly luminaries; and the luminaries themselves, lest they should be made in vain, needed the eyes of those who behold them; and the sea was unadorned until it either took its place or was filled with living creatures; and the earth was unformed apart from the use of those who dwell or are born upon it; and the irrational animals were unfit without the rule of man; and the herbs were superfluous in the absence of the use of animals. Thus all things needed one another, whether those which were made during the six days or those which come into being daily;

but, as we have already said, it is one thing to be unformed, another to be useful: for something unformed is declared in itself to be useful to another. [Disciple] In the adornment itself is there any distinction? [Master] There is; for some things were adorned during the six days, as heaven with luminaries, earth with herbs, and the sea with fishes; certain things are adorned as long as the world lives, as the sea with ships, the earth with buildings and the rest of the things constructed by human skill, and man himself with knowledge; but certain things will receive their beauty in the time to come, as the body incorruption, mortal things immortality, and the heavenly kingdom the habitation of the saints. It must be noted, moreover, in adornments, that of those which come about by skill or by the arts the cause is in men, but of the rest the cause is in God.

[Disciple] Give the fourth distinction. [Master] That some things emerged at once and as if suddenly created, as those which we said were made in the first days—that is, the herbs, the luminaries, the swimming and flying creatures, and likewise the land animals and quadrupeds; but some came to be not all at once, but as if with a certain delay, as the sea, the earth, and man: for man too is written to have been made gradually, just as the rest. [Disciple] Give the fifth distinction of the creatures. [Master] That some of them by reason preside over the rest, as the rational; some are held for use, as the heavenly luminaries; some serve by necessity of nature, as the birds and quadrupeds and the like. [Disciple] Give the sixth distinction.

[Master] That those which preside over the rest, namely the rational, are moved by will and reason; but those which serve by use or by necessity are moved by nature. [Disciple] The things that were made out of something—how many materials did they have? [Master] Six: earth, waters, air, fire, light, and the rib. [Disciple] Give in each case their origins. [Master] From the earth, the green things, the plants, and the animals; from the waters, the firmament, the sea, the swimming and flying creatures; and at the same time, from earth, water, fire, and air, all the things that are renewed through successions; from light, the luminaries; from the rib, Eve. [Disciple] How is it proved that fire was made, or from what, or when?

[Master] That it was made we can prove even from the general statement of Scripture, when it is said of God, 'who made heaven and earth, the sea, and all things that are in them,' since fire too is certainly among them; and from a special declaration, 'Praise the Lord from the earth, you sea-monsters and all deeps, fire, hail, snow, ice, stormy winds,' concerning which it had said before, 'for he spoke, and they were made'; and again, 'Bless the Lord, all you works of the Lord,' and it added, 'Bless the Lord, fire and heat.' But whether fire was made out of nothing, like the rest, or out of something, is doubted. For many wish it to be a particle of the heavenly luminaries;

for even now we have often seen men in a certain way borrow fire from the rays of the sun; and if this is so, it was made on the first day; but Scripture more wisely called this 'light' rather than 'fire,' so that it might take its name from the better use. [Disciple] Give the seventh distinction of the creatures. [Master] That all things which were made out of something, or out of which some things were made, are corporeal; but incorporeal things were themselves neither made out of anything, nor were any things made out of them. These things, however, are to be taken as incorporeal not in the sense in which God is called incorporeal; for in comparison with him nothing is incorporeal, just as nothing is immortal or invisible.

For there is one way in which these words befit the divinity alone, and another in which it speaks of the creatures, such as souls or angels. [Disciple] How is God said to have worked for six days and to have rested on the seventh day, if neither does he labor in making anything—so that rest should be believed necessary for him—nor does he ever cease, since the Lord says in the Gospel, 'My Father works until now, and I work'? [Master] God is said to have rested on the seventh day not from creating, since indeed by his dispensation and providence every creature is daily renewed or sustained; but this was signified: that after those six days he created no substantial form unknown to the world, nor any new nature untried before.

[Disciple] Can we inquire how God made the world? [Master] This is asked rashly rather than cautiously. For it is not permitted to man to understand the manner of any divine creation; for if anyone should know how some things were made out of nothing, he would surely be equal to the Creator in knowledge and power. On the things that pertain to the governance of the world. [Disciple] Since the creation of the world has been suitably treated, it remains for us to inquire: in how many ways is its governance signified? [Master] In two: for it is either general or special. [Disciple] What is the general? [Master] That by which the things that were made remain according to the manner in which they were made; which is signified when it is said, 'God saw that it was good,' and that they were 'very good,' and 'he blessed them';

which blessed David also shows, saying, 'he spoke, and they were made; he commanded, and they were created. He established them for ever and unto the age of ages; he set a decree, and it shall not pass away.' [Disciple] What is the special governance? [Master] That by which individual things, and especially the rational, are governed by God, as the command in Paradise concerning the tree. For just as the divine power contains all creatures, that they may remain, so also it instructs the rational by various occasions, that they may make progress. In how many ways does general governance come about? [Disciple] Into how many kinds is general governance divided? [Master] Into two: for it consists either in succession or in continuance.

By succession, as men or beasts of burden and the rest, which, perishing by death or corruption, are renewed by the likeness of those being reborn; but by continuance, as those things which, not subject to these passions, obey the motions of the world, such as heaven, the sun, the stars, and the rest. [Disciple] What other distinction is there among these? [Master] That those things which are preserved by renewal need also certain remedies—foods and rains, and sometimes the ministries of angels and other like things. But those things which do not subsist through succession are governed by God without any such mediation. But whether even in these something is done through the ministry of angels is a hidden and difficult question. In how many ways does special governance come about.

[Disciple] In how many ways does special governance come about? [Master] In three: for it comes either from God on behalf of angels and men, or from angels for the sake of themselves and men, or from men for their own sake. [Disciple] How does it come about from God on behalf of angels and men? [Master] Through the giving of the law. On the giving of the law and its distinctions. [Disciple] Into how many parts is the giving of the law divided? [Master] Into two: into natural discernment and into a law set externally. [Disciple] Prove that natural discernment is called a law. [Master] The Apostle says that 'the Gentiles, who do not have the law, do by nature the things of the law; these, not having the law, are a law unto themselves.' According to this, Cain too was guilty of his brother's murder.

[Disciple] Into how many parts is the externally established law divided? [Master] Into two: into works—that is, the recompense of acts—and into words. On the law through works. [Disciple] In the case of works, through how many ways? [Master] Through four: either through a general present recompense, as is the yield of crops and of the seasons; or through a special present recompense, as Abraham enriched among strangers, or Noah saved in the flood; or through a general visible punishment, as a general famine or drought; or through a special one, as the punishment of Cain or Saul. For all these things instruct angels and men after the manner of a law; for indeed the fall of the devil both terrified and confirmed the angels—though it must be believed that angels are instructed in one way, men in another.

[Disciple] What is the purpose of the whole giving of the law? [Master] It lies in the discernment of good and evil, which are recognized either in doctrine—that is, in faith—or in deeds. [Disciple] Why did we say that present punishments and rewards are a law? [Master] Because they are the very things that instruct in place of a law; for things future and eternal will profit neither those who suffer nor those who see them, where there will no longer be a time for repentance. [Disciple] By what ministers is this governance read in the Scriptures to have been carried out? [Master] Sometimes God by himself, as he commanded Adam not to touch the tree; sometimes through angels, as the Apostle testifies that 'if the word spoken through angels was made firm'; and again, the firstborn of Egypt are said to have been destroyed by the hand of an angel;

or through men, as through the prophets; or through beasts, as through the serpents in the wilderness and the like: for through these things too, as through a kind of substantial and material law, he forbids from evils on account of which they are inflicted, and impels and urges toward the goods whose reward he holds out. On the law through words. [Disciple] Into how many parts is the law established in words divided? [Master] Into two: for it commands either something unchangeable or something temporal. [Disciple] How many are the kinds of unchangeable things? [Master] Two: the love of God and the love of neighbor. [Disciple] Into how many parts are temporal precepts divided? [Master] Into two: for they were observed either for a long time, as circumcision, or for a short time, as the receiving of the manna. [Disciple] What other distinction of laws is there?

[Master] That they either command something, as 'Honor your father,' or forbid something, as 'You shall not kill; you shall not commit adultery.' [Disciple] Give the third distinction. [Master] That some are useful in themselves, others necessary on account of those. [Disciple] Which are useful in themselves? [Master] The love of God and of neighbor. [Disciple] Which are necessary on account of others? [Master] As, 'You shall not kill'; for by murder the love of a brother is driven out; and the observance of the Sabbath: for in its observance there is a commemoration of God's rest from the working of creatures, in which celebration the love of God as Creator was signified. [Disciple] Give the fourth distinction.

[Master] That certain precepts were as it were bodily, as those concerning clean and unclean animals and leprosy and the like; certain were spiritual, as 'You shall not hate your brother in your heart.' [Disciple] Give the fifth distinction. [Master] That certain are precepts specially of the Old Testament, as concerning the jubilee; certain specially of the New, as 'Thus shall you pray: Our Father, who art in heaven'; certain common to both, as 'You shall love the Lord your God.' [Disciple] Give the sixth distinction. [Master] That some precepts are understood as they sound, as 'You shall not commit adultery'; but some not as they sound, as 'When you do alms, let not your left hand know what your right hand is doing.' [Disciple] Give the seventh distinction.

[Master] That the transgression of some precepts is punished with a penalty, as 'an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth'; the transgression of some has no penalty, as for one who was not a priest to eat the priestly bread; but of others the transgression is even praiseworthy, as 'if I have repaid those who rendered me evil.' For the law then commanded that evils be repaid to the evil; therefore the contempt of the law is found to be praiseworthy. [Disciple] Give the eighth distinction. [Master] That some precepts pertain to faith, some to morals, the subdivision of which is recognized to be exceedingly extensive. On angelic governance. [Disciple] How does the governance of angels for their own sake and for men come about? [Master] It is not, indeed, read openly in Scripture;

yet since therein angels are said to have ranks and orders, and goings-to-and-fro on account of human life, as for Tobias and Daniel and others, it is without doubt signified that they govern the tasks enjoined upon them in the world, by which they both look after themselves, while they obey the Creator, and after men, while they make provision for their dispensation. On human governance through men. [Disciple] In how many ways does the governance of men for their own sake come about? [Master] In three: for either a man is busied on behalf of the commonwealth, as a king; or on behalf of a household, as the head of a family; or for his own sake, as any monk or needy person. [Disciple] Does governance belong to no other creatures? [Master] It belongs indeed to all;

for the Creator has bestowed upon all, according to their nature, a kind of prudence as it were, as it is read, 'I wished to gather your children, as a hen her chicks,' and the like. But neither is it the intention of Scripture to teach subtly about irrational things, nor does it belong to the desire of those making progress to wear away time in inquiring into these. On the accidents of nature. [Disciple] Since enough has been said about the governance of the world, what are the accidents of natures? [Master] To the divine nature, indeed, nothing accidental happens: for since it is incomprehensible and ever holding itself in the same manner, it does not admit the diversity of accidents. [Disciple] What, then, accidentally happens to creatures?

[Master] To stand still, as the earth; and according to Scripture, to be moved in heaven, as fire and waters and the rest of growing things; then time, place, number—for all things both began at some time and are somewhere and are one or many. Likewise there accidentally happen: to be generated, to be corrupted, health, sickness, shape, position, the capacity for arts and disciplines; likewise to grow, to be nourished, to perceive, to live, to die, to differ among themselves and to be contraries; furthermore order, sequence, coherence, and things like these and contrary to them; yet not all of them to each thing. On the accidents of the will. [Disciple] Since enough has been said about the accidents of natures, we must now speak of the accidents of the will. What is the will?

[Master] A power of the mind, inviolate or spontaneous, according to which diverse and contrary thoughts and works are produced. [Disciple] Is this faculty natural in us, or spontaneous? [Master] There is in us a certain natural discernment of good and evil; but the motion is spontaneous in those things which, once discerned, are to be carried out. The law indeed instructs the will itself; but grace prepares, helps, strengthens, and crowns it. On the consequences attending the outcome of the will. [Disciple] What are the consequences of the will? [Master] A certain four: for in this life either good things befall the good and evil things the evil, as the prosperity of Abraham and the punishment of Cain; or, on the contrary, good things the evil and evil things the good, as the rich man in the Gospel is described as fortunate even unto death;

on the contrary, Lazarus is tormented with sores and want; or else neither to these nor to those is any recompense rendered—as for Joseph, who was sold, no vengeance is exacted upon his brothers, nor does the father-in-law of Moses, who gave counsel for ruling the people, though praised by God, receive any reward. [Disciple] What causes do we assign for this diversity? [Master] To some, fitting things are repaid here, lest the world be thought to be ruled not by divine providence but by chance; and at the same time, that both the abundance of good things may console the good, and the punishment of like things may deter the evil; or else prosperity is permitted to the evil, that the good may be tested and may learn to despise those things which they see to be shared in common with the unworthy; but evils befall the good equally:

or to neither kind is any image of recompense granted here, that we may be able to recognize that judgment and full retribution for deeds is elsewhere. [Disciple] Give the fourth mode. [Master] When those who have done neither anything evil nor anything good of themselves partake of good things or evil—as infants—or perhaps neither, as are the stillborn, concerning whose state and merit and cause there is a subtle and doubtful discussion. On the things that pertain to the age to come. [Disciple] Since we have completed all the parts of the rules concerning the present age, what things do we believe pertain to the age to come? [Master] A certain four: for there is either an acceptance, or calling, or a figure, or a prediction, or the effect, or outcome, of the things foretold. On acceptances.

[Disciple] What do we call acceptance, or calling? [Master] That, namely, by which God deigns to reconcile to himself certain men or peoples by the benefit of special grace, and shows toward them more than toward other men, as it were, the familiar favors of divine indulgence. [Disciple] How many are the acceptances? [Master] Ten. [Disciple] Give the order of the acceptances.

[Master] The first is that of blessed Abraham; the second of Isaac; the third of Jacob and of the twelve patriarchs born from him; the fourth of the tribe of Judah; the fifth of the whole people in Egypt; the sixth of holy David; the seventh of the house of David himself, and through it of the whole tribe of Judah; the eighth the return of the people from captivity; the ninth of our Lord Jesus Christ according to the flesh, which the Son of God, coming, took to himself from the lineage of David, and through it provided for the salvation and remission of us all from Abraham and from Adam; the tenth of all the nations through the dispensation of the incarnation of our God and Savior himself. [Disciple] What then? Were there not righteous men, pleasing to God, before Abraham?

[Master] There were indeed, since those who had been begotten from Seth were called 'sons of God,' and Enoch was translated, and Noah was made the renewer of a perishing world, and Melchizedek a type of the high priest. But in these the divine acceptance—that is, that special familiarity and favor—is not shown, but their righteousness is declared; whereas toward Abraham God's frequent address and, as it were, fellowship, and his dispensation in each particular, the rewards promised as proof, and the remembrance unto his posterity, show the wondrous power of divine acceptance. Similarly also, concerning the rest aforementioned, a certain peculiar favor of the divinity and, as it were, a governance openly dispensed through the individual acts of life, declares the special aid of grace.

[Disciple] Why do we say these things pertain to the age to come, since they were done in the present? [Master] Because every thing is perceived from its effect, and the cause of a deed is the intention of the doer. [Disciple] Prove that the causes of these acceptances look toward things to come. [Master] The faith of the nations, for the hope of eternal life, follows the Christian religion. For Christ himself, the Lord, by the whole remedy of his teaching and the miracles of his acts, and by his resurrection and ascension, taught, promised, proved, and granted the life to come. And who is ignorant that the other acceptances were brought about for the Lord and his sacraments, if he himself is promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob as the one who would confer salvation upon the nations? On his account the seed of Abraham is set apart from the other nations;

on his account the tribe of Judah both excels in blessing, and is led last into captivity and saved first, because from it the Lord deigned to take flesh—so much so that from it all were called Jews; he himself is promised to David and to his house and tribe as the one who would reign for ever from his seed. Therefore, if the faith of the nations was wrought for the life to come, the incarnation of Christ for the faith of the nations, and the rest for the incarnation of Christ, then the whole series of acceptances is gathered, from its very intention, to pertain to the age to come. And all these things are also easily confirmed by the testimonies of the New and the Old Testament, since they are everywhere scattered. On types. [Disciple] What is a type?

[Master] What we call a figure, or form, as the Apostle says, 'For all these things happened to them in figure,' and again, 'Adam, who is the form of the one to come'; for it is not out of place that one same thing be signified by many words. [Disciple] What then is a type, or figure? [Master] The manifestation, through deeds, of present or past or future unknown things—according to that which the deeds are. [Disciple] Give types of past things. [Master] As is the humility of the catechumens: for they bear the type of Adam, expelled from Paradise and, out of the consciousness of his sins, fearing the divine countenance; on which account they too go about in public with their heads covered. [Disciple] Give one among present things.

[Master] As the garment of Aaron, which bore the names of the twelve tribes engraved upon stones, showing that he in a certain way made supplication on behalf of the whole people. [Disciple] Give one concerning future things. [Master] In these there is no difficulty; yet, by way of surplus, as in the two sons of Abraham the two testaments were shown. [Disciple] Since we gave an almost similar definition concerning prophecy as well, what is the difference? [Master] That in prophecy, by words, according to that which words are, future things are signified; but in types, things are declared from things. Yet these two can be so mingled in definition that we may say that prophecy is a type in words, according to that which they are words; and conversely, a type is a prophecy in things, insofar as they are known to be things.

On the distinctions of types. [Disciple] How many are the modes of types, or figures? [Master] Principally four: for either glad things are signified by glad, or sad by sad, or glad by sad, or sad by glad. [Disciple] Give examples through the individual modes. [Master] Glad things are indeed signified by glad, as the resurrection of our Lord according to the flesh and his dwelling in heaven is a form of our resurrection and a sign of the future dwelling of the righteous in heaven, as the Apostle says, 'For you are dead, and our life is hidden with Christ in God.'

But sad things are prefigured by sad, as the casting down of the devil and his angels and the promise of future punishment is a figure of those who, for the likeness of their works, will be thrust down to like punishments, just as blessed Peter too uses the same form to deter sinners, saying of God that 'he did not spare the angels that sinned, but delivered them to the prisons of darkness.' The third mode is when glad things are signified by sad, as the transgression of Adam was a type of the righteousness of our Savior, as the blessed Apostle teaches that 'as by the disobedience of one man many were made sinners, so also by the obedience of one man many shall be made righteous.'

'For death reigned from Adam until Moses, even over those who had not sinned after the likeness of the transgression of Adam, who is the form of the one to come'—that is, the type; for in the Greek the word 'typus' is specially read. Therefore the grace of the second Adam, that is, of Christ, was the form, or type, of the transgression of Adam—prefigured, namely, by way of contrast. The fourth mode is when sad things are figured by glad, as baptism is a figure of the death of our Lord, as the Apostle says, 'For as many of you as were baptized in the death of Jesus were baptized.' For what is gladder than baptism, where we are cleansed from sin and by which we are made sons of God; or sadder than death, to which even he himself, who was about to take it up willingly, nevertheless came in sorrow?

[Disciple] What other things accidentally befall types? [Master] Difference of times: for some are before the Law, as Abel, slain by his brother, prefigured the passion of Christ, and Noah's ark the Church, and the like; but some are under the Law, as the death of Moses himself and the glory of Joshua; some under Grace, as the garments of the baptized and the vestments of the priests and the partaking of the Lord's body and various other things—all of which to show by types pertains not to the teaching of the rules but to the exposition of the text. [Disciple] By what reasoning do we say that figures, or types, pertain to the age to come? [Master] Because the figures of the Old Testament look in intention toward the New;

but the New promises the blessedness of the life to come, and thus all things, from their very intention, run together toward the hope of the age to come. On predictions. [Master] Since we have spoken of the rule of types, let us look at predictions. What is a prediction? [Master] The manifestation of future uncertain things by words, insofar as they are words. [Disciple] What accidentally befalls predictions? [Master] Principally three things: that some were before the Law, some under the Law, some under Grace. In how many ways were predictions made before the Law? [Disciple] In how many ways were predictions made before the Law? [Master] In five:

either concerning generality in common, as 'Therefore a man shall leave his father and mother and shall cleave to his wife, and they shall be two in one flesh'; and again, 'Cursed is the earth in your works'; for this is known to have been foretold to the whole human race through one man: or in part, or half, as 'I will multiply your sorrows, and in sorrow you shall bring forth children; and your turning shall be to your husband, and he shall rule over you'; for this was said not to the whole human race, but to all women: or singularly, as 'And Adam called the name of his wife Life, because she is the mother of all the living': or for the beginning of the Old Testament, as 'Cursed be Canaan; he shall be a servant to his brothers.'