詞源與文集 第 20 章

I. ON TABLES. Daedalus first made the table and the chair. A certain Apicius first put together the apparatus of the kitchen; having consumed his fortune in it, he perished by his own hand — and deservedly, because he who is a slave to his gullet and to gluttony destroys both soul and body. From eating (esus) and consuming (comesus) the word 'table' (mensa) was formed; for it has no other use. The couch (torus) is so called from the twisted herbs (tortae herbae) which are placed under the shoulders of those reclining. The stibadium is named from the stems (stipites), as if stipadium; for so it was first begun. The place of reclining (adcubitum) is named from food (cibus), as if for the eating (ad cibatum) of the feasts. Among the Greeks the banquet (convivium) is so called from drinking together, apo tou potou. But among us it is more rightly named from living together (convictus), or because it involves the conversation of life. Likewise the convivium is from the multitude of those feasting together;

for a private table is sustenance (victus), but it is not a banquet (convivium). The banquet has a threefold manner: of reclining, of eating, and of drinking. Of reclining, as (Virgil, Aeneid 1,708): 'Bidden to recline upon the embroidered couches.' Of eating and drinking, as (Virgil, Aeneid 1,723): 'After the first repose from the feast, and the tables were removed, they set out great mixing-bowls and crown the wines.' II. ON FOODS. Food (cibus) is so called because it is taken by the mouth (capere ore), just as 'morsel' (esca) because the mouth (os) takes it. Sustenance (victus) is properly so named because it retains life (vita); whence too, to call to a meal is called 'to invite' (invitare). Nourishment (alimonia) is so called because by its taking the body is nourished (alere). This the young receive for increase, the old for perseverance; for the flesh cannot subsist unless it be strengthened with nourishment. For nourishment (alimentum) is that by which we are nourished;

alimonium is the care of nourishing. Abundance (affluentia) is named as it were the pouring-out (effusio) of a thing overflowing too much, beyond what is enough, and there is no measure. Opulence (opulentia) is named from resources (ops); and if you examine it, you will find that it keeps a measure. For how does that which is excessive give aid (opitulari), when it is often more troublesome than too little? Feasts (epulae) are named from the abundance (opulentia) of things. Now simple feasts are divided into two necessities, bread and wine, and two superfluities, which land and sea provide for the sake of eating. But dapes belong to kings, epulae to private men. Delights (deliciae) are so named because by these men are delighted (delectari), and pleasantly desire them. The dish (pulmentum) is named from pulse (puls); for whether pulse alone, or something else taken by mixture with it, be eaten, it is properly called pulmentum.

Now satiety (satietas) and fullness (saturitas) differ from each other: for satietas can be said of a single food, in that it is enough (satis); but saturitas took its name from the satura, which is a dish composed of a varied preparation of foods. Surfeit (crapula) is immoderate voracity, as it were raw feasting (cruda epula), by whose rawness the heart is weighed down and the stomach is rendered undigested. For immoderate voracity is a vice, but there should be only so much of food as suffices for sustenance and nature. Breakfast (iantaculum) is the first food by which the fast is broken; whence too it is named. Nigidius (109) says: 'We ourselves defile our fasts with light breakfasts.' Luncheon (prandium) is named from the apparatus of eating. But properly the ancients called prandium the food of all soldiers before battle; whence comes that address of the general:

'Let us take our luncheon as men about to dine among the shades below.' The afternoon meal (merenda) is the food that is taken as the day declines, as it were to be eaten in the afternoon (postmeridie) and next to the supper; whence too by some it is called antecenia (fore-suppers). Likewise 'to take the merenda' is as it were to eat at midday (meridie). The dole of grain (annona) is derived from the time (hora) at which the ancient Romans were summoned to their food. So Martial (4,8,6): 'The ninth hour bids us break up the lofty couches.' This the Persians too do even to this day. The supper (cena) is called from the communion (communio) of those eating: for the Greeks call the common koinon; whence too 'those who communicate' (communicantes) are so called because they come together in common, that is, equally. For among the ancients it was customary to eat in the open and to feast in common, lest solitude beget extravagance. Now the cena is the evening food, which the ancients called the vesperna;

for luncheons were not in use. Bread (panis) is so called because it is set out with (adponere) every food, or because every living creature desires it; for pan in Greek means 'all.' The cibarius (common loaf) is that which is given as food to slaves, and not dainty. The fermentacius is made with leaven (fermentum). The azymus is unleavened; for azymos is without leaven, pure. The acrozymus is lightly leavened, as it were acroazymus. The siligineus loaf is named from a kind of grain; for siligo is a kind of wheat. The rubidus is recooked and reddened. The subcinericius is cooked in the ashes and turned over: this is also the focacius (hearth-loaf). The clibanicius is cooked in an oven-pot. The sponge-bread (spongia panis), long softened in water, receives a little fine flour and a little leaven, and has more of moistening than any bread;

whence too it received the name of sponge. Placentae (flat-cakes) are those which are made of spelt (far). Others call them liba, because they please (libere) and are pleasing (placere). Sweets (dulcia) are a kind of baker's work, so called from their taste; for they are eaten with honey sprinkled on. The crust (crusta) is the surface of the bread: it is also 'fragments,' because it is divided, as if 'broken' (fracta). Leaven (fermentum) is named from fervor, because after the first hour it can no longer be contained; for by growing it overflows. Flour (farina) and bran (furfures) are named from spelt (far), of which they are the siftings. Fine meal (amolum) is the flower of flour, the finest, which for its lightness is thrown up from the mill (mola); whence too it is named, as it were 'from the mill' (a mola). Simila. Pollines. Flesh (carnes) is so called because it is flesh (caro); or from creating (creare), whence too by the Greeks it is called kreas. The raw (crudum) is so called because it is bloody (cruentum); for it is with blood.

The cooked (coctum) [as it were 'compelled' (coactum), that is, driven by fire or water in a forcible manner and made fit for the use of eating]. But also something of long keeping is called coctum. The roasted (assum), because it burns (ardere), as it were arsum. The boiled (elixum), because it is thoroughly cooked in water alone. For water is called lixa from this, that it is loosed (soluta); whence too the loosening of lust is luxus, and limbs moved from their place are called luxa. The fried (frixum) is so called from the sound, when it burns in oil. The salted (salsum), as if sprinkled with salt (sale asparsum), with the middle syllables removed. The rancid (rancidum) is named from a defect, because it makes hoarse (raucus). Salt-meats (succidia) are flesh laid up for use, so called from cutting up (succidere). Lard (lardum), because it is preserved laid up in the house; for the ancients called houses lares. Taxea is lard, so called in Gallic. Whence Afranius in his Rosa (284):

'A cloaked Gaul, fattened with rich lard.' Axle-grease (axungia) is named from anointing (unctio). Tallow (sebum) is named from the sow (sus), as it were suebum, because this animal has more fat. A morsel (offa) is properly a bite for the teeth, whose diminutive makes offella. Whence too the offarii are cooks, because they cook in bits, that is, morsel by morsel (offatim). Now there is the 'morsel of barkers' (offa latrantium), with which, if it be thrown into a dog's mouth, being sated it is at once quieted and falls silent. A piece (frustum) is so called because it is taken from the frumen; for the frumen is the topmost part of the gullet. Pulp (pulpa) is so called because of old it was eaten mixed with pulse (puls). Whence too the pulmentarium and pulmentum are named. Lucanicae (sausages) are so called because they were first made in Lucania. Stuffing (farcimen) is flesh cut up small, because with it the intestine is stuffed (farcire), that is, filled, with a mixture of other things.

The minutal is so called because it is made of fish and forcemeats and vegetables cut up small (minutatim). The aphratum, which in Latin is called 'foamy' (spumeum); for afros in Greek means foam. Martisia are made of fish in a mortar (mortarium): thence too they are named. The isox was called a certain fish, from which forcemeats (isicia) were first made; and although they are made of another kind of fish, nevertheless the fish gave the beginning of the word. Galaticae are named from their milky color; for the Greeks call milk gala. Sphaerae are so called by a Greek word from their roundness; for whatever is formed into a round shape is called sphaira by the Greeks. Sauce (ius) the masters of the kitchen named from 'law' (ius), because it is the law of its seasoning. This the Greeks call zema. Cheese (caseum) is so called because it lacks whey (careat serum), as it were careum:

for all the whey is drawn off from it, so that it may be proved by weights. Colostrum is new milk; which is of neuter gender. Milk (lac) is derived from the Greek word for whiteness; for the Greeks call white leukon. And milk and blood are that which nourishes and that which is nourished; for by milk we are nourished, by blood we live. Curd (quactum), as it were 'compelled' (coactum), as it were coagulated; for having received into itself another substance, it curdles. Honey (mel) is of Greek appellation, for it is proved to have its name from the bees; for the bee in Greek is called melissa. But formerly honeys came from the dew, and were found on the leaves of reeds. Whence too Virgil (Georgics 4,1): 'Thus far the heavenly gifts of airy honey.' Indeed even now in India and Arabia it is found gathered, clinging to the branches in the likeness of salt.

Now all honey is sweet: the Sardinian is bitter because of the wormwood (absinthium), on whose abundance the bees of that region are nourished. The honeycomb (favum) is so called because it is eaten (comedere) rather than drunk; for the Greeks call eating phagein. Now the physicians, and those who have written of the natures of human bodies — and especially Galen in his books whose title is 'On Sects' — say that the bodies of boys and youths, and of men and women of full age, glow with an inborn heat, and that those foods are harmful to these ages which increase the heat, and that it is conducive to health to take in food anything cold; just as, on the contrary, to the old, who suffer from phlegm and cold, warm foods and old wines are beneficial. III. ON DRINK. The draught (potio) is called from a Greek derivation;

for they call this potos. Water (aqua) is so called generally, because its surface is level (aequalis): hence too the 'level seas' (aequora). And we call it fresh (recens) from this, that old water is not useful, like wine, but must be taken up at once from river and spring or well; for old water grows fetid. Wine (vinum) is so called because its drink quickly fills the veins (venae) with blood. This others call Lyaeus, because it looses (solvere) us from care. The ancients called wine venom (venenum); but after the deadly juice of poison (virus letiferum) was discovered, the former was called vinum, the latter venenum. Whence too Jerome in the book which he wrote on preserving virginity:

'Young girls,' he says, 'ought so to flee wine as poison, lest, on account of the fervent heat of their age, they drink and perish.' Hence it is that among the ancient Romans women did not use wine, except for the sake of the sacred rites on certain days. We say merum (unmixed wine) when we mean pure wine; for we call merum whatever is pure and unadulterated, just as we call pure water (aqua mera) that mixed with nothing whatever. Hence too the merenda, because in ancient times at that hour to the working boys pure bread (panis merus) was given; or because they take their midday rest (meridiare) at that time, that is, alone and apart, not, as at luncheon or supper, at one table. Thence we believe that even that time which is after midday is called meridies, because it is pure (purum). Must (mustum) is wine taken up at once from the vat.

Now it is believed to be called mustum because it has slime (limus) and earth mixed in it; for mus is earth, whence too humus. Its force of fermentation is so great that it at once bursts asunder vessels, however large, that are filled with it without a vent. Rose wine (roseum) is that with a blush; for the rose (rosa) is red. But the Aminean is as it were 'without red' (sine mineo), that is, without a blush; for it is white. The amber wine (sucinacium) is like the amber gem (sucina gemma), that is, of a tawny color. Clear wine (limpidum), that is, transparent, is named from the appearance of water, as if lymphidum; for lympha is water. The turbid (turbidum), as if terbidum, that is, mixed with earth (terra), which is the dregs. Falernian wine (Falernum) is named from the Falernian region of Campania, where the best vines grow. The strained (colatum) took its name from the vessel in which it is carried:

But the Gazean wine is named from the region whence it is brought; for Gaza is a town of Palestine. Infertum wine is that which is poured out and offered upon the altar. The spurcum (unclean) is that which it is not lawful to offer, or that to which water has been mixed, as it were spurium, that is, unclean. Honorary wine (honorarium) is that which is offered to kings and the powerful for the sake of honor. Cato in his 'On his own innocence' (1): 'When I was a legate in the province, very many gave honorary wine to the praetors and consuls: I never took it, not even as a private man.' Crucium wine is that unpleasant wine which slaves drink. Vinegar (acetum), either because it is sharp (acutum), or because it is watered (aquatum); for wine mixed with water is quickly reduced to this taste. Whence too the acid (acidum), as if aquidum (watery).

Spiced wine (conditum) is so called because it is not simple, but composed by a mixture of aromatic pigments. The milk-drink (lactatum) is a draught made from milk. Mead (mulsum) is mixed from honey (mel); for it is a draught of water and honey, which the Greeks call melikraton. Oenomelum is must mixed with honey and vigorously stirred and agitated. Hydromelum is that which is made of water and Matian apples. Saccatum is a liquor of water mixed with the dregs of wine and pressed through a strainer-sack (saccus). Lorea. Oxymel (oxymeli) is so called because it is made of a mixed matter of vinegar and honey, whence it retains both sweetness and sourness. Rhodomel (rhodomelum) is so called because honey is mixed into the juice of the rose (rosa). Melicratum is wine mixed with honey. Medus, as it were melus, because it is made from honey (mel); just as calamitas for cadamitas.

Wine-lees jelly (faecula) is the rich grape-juice, boiled down to the thickness of honey and cooled, useful for the stomach. Raisin-wine (passum) is whatever has flowed out pressed from the dried grape (uva passa). Now it is called passum from suffering (pati): for the drier grape is beaten and boiled down, and thence comes passum. Boiled-down must (defrutum) is so called because it is defrauded (defrudari), and as it were suffers a fraud. Carenum is so called because in boiling it lacks (careat) a part; for when a third part of the must is lost, what remains is carenum. To this the sapa is contrary, which in boiling has been reduced to a third and settled down. Sicera is every draught which, apart from wine, can intoxicate.

Although its name is Hebrew, nevertheless it has a Latin sound for this reason, that it is made from the juice of grain or of fruits, or the fruits of palms are pressed into a liquid, and, when the crops have been cooked, a water thicker than usual, as it were a juice, is strained off, and this very draught is called sicera. Beer (cervisia) is named from Ceres, that is, from grain; for it is a draught made from the seeds of grain in various ways. Caelia is named from heating (calefacere); for it is a draught made by skill from the juice of wheat. For that power of the germinating, moistened grain is roused by fire and then dried, and afterward, reduced to flour, is mixed with a soft juice, and by fermenting this, a taste of tartness and a heat of intoxication is added to it. This is made in those parts of Spain whose place is not fruitful of wine.

The dregs (fex) are so called because in surfacing they cling to the vessel. Garum is a salted liquor of fish, which of old was made from a fish which the Greeks called garon; and although now it is made from countless kinds of fish, it nevertheless retains the former name from which it took its beginning. Liquamen is so named because little fish dissolved in the brine (salsamentum) exude that same moisture. Its liquid is called salsugo or muria. But properly muria is called water mixed with salt, made in taste like the sea. Juices (sucus) are so called because they are pressed out through a sack (saccus), like barley-water (ptisana). Ptisana, zema, apozema are Greek words. IV. ON EATING-VESSELS. Vessels (vasa) are named from eating (vesci), because upon them the foods are set. Its diminutive is vascula, as it were vescula.

Earthenware (fictilia) is so called because it is made and fashioned (fingere) from earth. For fingere is to make, to form, and to mold, whence too potters (figuli) are named. And a vessel is called fictile not 'feigned' in that sense which is a lie, but because it is formed, so that it may be and may have some form. Whence too the Apostle says (Romans 9,20): 'Does the thing formed (figmentum) say to him who formed it: Why hast thou made me thus?' Earthenware vessels are recorded to have been first invented on the island of Samos, made of clay and hardened by fire; whence too the 'Samian vessels': afterward it was found out to add red ochre also, and to fashion them from red clay. And the use of earthenware vessels was more ancient than that of casting bronze or silver; for among the ancients they had neither golden nor silver vessels, but earthenware;

just as for wines casks (dolia) were devised, for waters amphorae, water-jars (hydriae) for the baths, and the rest which are made for the uses of men either upon the wheel or fashioned by hand. Now clay (argilla), when baked, receives the name of 'earthenware' (testa) because, while it was soft, it is rendered baked, and it does not share in the name of its former kind, because what it was, it is not. Arretine vessels are named from Arretium, a municipality of Italy, where they are made; for they are red. Of which Sedulius (prologue): 'What the red earthenware (testa), set before you, serves up as a vegetable.' Some think the Samian vessels have their name from the town Samos of Greece. Others say there is a clay of Italy, which is produced not far from Rome, which is called samian.

Chased vessels are those of silver or gold, wrought within and without with figures in relief; they are named from 'caelum,' which is a kind of iron tool, commonly called a 'cilio' (chisel). Chrysendeta are gilded vessels; the word is Greek. Anaglypha are so called because they are carved on the upper surface; for the Greeks say 'ano' for 'upward' and 'glyphe' for 'carving,' that is, carved on top. The 'discus' (platter) was formerly 'scus,' from the appearance of a shield ('scutum'); whence also 'scutella' (dish). Later it was called 'discus' because it presents ('det') food, that is, sets it out; from which those reclining at table ('discumbentes') are also named. Or it comes from 'apo tou diskein,' that is, because they cast it. The 'messorium' is named from 'mensa' (table) by derivation, as if 'mensorium.' The 'parapsis' is a four-cornered and four-sided vessel, that is, with equal recesses ('paribus absidis'). The 'patena' (paten) is so called because it is with wide and open ('patentibus') mouths. The 'lanx' (dish).

The 'gavata' (bowl) is so called because it is hollowed out ('cavata'), the letter G being put for C. Hence also the 'conca' (shell-shaped dish); but the former is hollowed, the latter concave: so too the Greeks name these things. The 'scutella' (little dish) comes from 'scutum' (shield) by diminution; for it is like it. The 'apophoreta' (dish for carrying off gifts) is named by the Greeks from carrying fruits or something else; for it is flat. The 'salinum' (salt-cellar) is a vessel suited to salts ('salibus'). The same is also called 'sulzica,' as if 'salzica.' The 'acitabulum' (vinegar-cruet) is as it were 'acetaforum,' because it carries vinegar ('acetum'). The 'coclear' (spoon) is named from its earlier use with snails ('coclearum'). Hence comes that old couplet (Martial 14,121): 'I am handy for snails and no less useful for eggs. Do you perhaps know rather why I am called a spoon?' The 'trisceles' by its Greek name, in Latin 'tripedes' (three-footed); but those which stand on four feet are so called by misuse. In little vessels, moreover, three things are sought which give pleasure:

the hand of the craftsman, the weight of the silver, the sheen of the metal. V. ON DRINKING VESSELS. The 'poculum' (cup) is named from drinking ('potando'); for it is every vessel in which there is the custom of drinking. 'Phialae' (bowls) are so called because they are made of glass; for glass is called 'valos' in Greek. 'Paterae' (libation-bowls) are called 'phialae' either because we are wont to drink from them, or because they are open ('patentes') and with spread-out lips. The 'cratera' (mixing-bowl) is a cup having two handles, and the word is Greek. Among them it is declined as masculine 'hic crater'; for in Latin this is called 'haec cratera.' Whence Persius (2,51): 'If for you bowls ('crateras') of silver'; Virgil (Aen. 1,724): 'They set out mixing-bowls ('crateras') and wreathe the wine.' They were first made from the joining together of twigs; whence also they are called 'craterae,' from 'apo tou kratein,' that is, because they hold one another in turn.

The 'cyathi' (ladles), 'scyphi' (goblets), and 'cymbia' (boat-cups) are themselves also kinds of drinking-cups. Of these the 'cymbia' are called cups from their likeness to a ship's skiff ('cymba'). The 'amystis' is a kind of cup from which one drinks in a draught, that is, in a single breath. The 'baccea' was first named from Bacchus, that is, from wine, and later passed over to uses for water. 'Calices' and 'calathi' and 'scalae' are kinds of cups, formerly made of wood, and named from that; for the Greeks called all wood 'kala.' The 'ampulla' is as it were 'ampla bulla' (a large bubble): for it is like in roundness to the bubbles that form from the foam of waters and are so puffed up by the wind. VI. ON WINE-VESSELS AND WATER-VESSELS. The 'oenophorum' is a vessel carrying wine; for 'oinos' is wine. Concerning which there is that verse (Lucilius 139): 'The bottom of the wine-jar is turned up, that is our opinion.'

'Flascae' (flasks) are named from a Greek word. These were first made for conveying and storing 'phialae' (bowls), whence also they were named; later they passed over to the use of wine, the Greek word remaining from which they took their beginning. 'Lagoena' (flagon) and 'Sicula' (Sicilian jar) are Greek names, in part inflected so that they became Latin. For they say 'lagenos,' we 'lagoena'; they say 'sikele,' we say 'Sicula.' The 'cantharus' (tankard). The 'hydria' is a kind of water-vessel named by derivation; for the Greeks call water 'hydor.' The 'situla' (bucket) is so called because it is suited for the thirsty ('sitientibus') to drink; the Greeks call this vessel 'kados.' The 'catinum' (dish) is an earthen vessel, which is better said in the neuter than in the masculine; just as the 'salinum' is called a vessel suited to salts. The 'orca' is a kind of amphora, of which the lesser word is 'urceus' (pitcher), with the diminutive 'urceolus' (little pitcher).

The 'scyphus,' in which we wash our hands. The 'seriola' is a straight row of jars ('orcarum'), or an earthen wine-vessel first devised in Syria; just as the 'Cilicises' (Cilician jars) are named from Cilicia, whence they were first brought. The 'dolium' (cask). 'Cupi' and 'cupae' (vats) are so called from 'capiendo,' that is, from receiving, waters or wine; whence also 'caupones' (tavern-keepers). 'Utres' (wineskins) from 'uterus' (belly). The 'mulgarium' is a vessel in which cattle are milked: the same is also 'mulctrum,' from the fact that milk is milked in it. The 'labrum' (basin) is so called because in it the washing ('labatio') of infants was wont to be done, of which the diminutive is 'labellum.' The same is also 'albeum' (trough), because ablution was wont to be done in it. 'Pelves' (basins) are so called because feet ('pedes') are washed there. The 'sifon' (siphon) is a vessel named because it pours out waters by blowing ('sufflando'); for they use these in the East.

For when they perceive a house on fire, they run with siphons full of water and put out the flames; and they also cleanse vaulted ceilings by squirting water to the upper parts. VII. ON OIL-VESSELS. The 'hemicadium' is an oil-vessel. The 'scortia' is an oil-vessel so called because it is made of hide ('corio'). The 'alabastrum' is an ointment-vessel named from a stone of its own kind, which they call 'alabastrites,' which keeps ointments uncorrupted. 'Pyxides' are little ointment-vessels made of boxwood ('buxo'); for what we call 'buxum,' the Greeks call 'pyxon.' The 'lenticula' is a little oil-vessel, made of bronze or silver, named from anointing ('liniendo'): for with these kings and priests were anointed. VIII. ON KITCHEN-VESSELS. All vessels prepared for the sake of cooking are called 'cocula.' Plautus (frag. 181):

'By bronze cooking-pots all my pity has been boiled out of me.' The 'olla' (pot) is so called from the fact that the water bubbles up ('ebulliat') in it when fire is placed beneath, so that the vapor is sent forth higher up. Whence also 'bulla' (bubble) is named, which in water is sustained by the breath of the wind within. The 'patella' (pan) is as it were 'patula' (spread out); for it is a pot with rather open ('patentioribus') mouths. The 'caccabus' (pot) and 'cucuma' (kettle) are named from the sound of boiling. These have names common to Greek and Latin; but whether the Latins borrowed these words from the Greeks or the Greeks from the Latins is uncertain. 'Lebetae' (cauldrons) of bronze are so called by Greek speech; for they are smaller pots prepared for the use of cooking. The 'sartago' (frying-pan) is named from the sound-crackle when oil burns in it. 'Tripedes' (trivets) are so called because they consist of three feet: the Greeks call these 'tripodes.'

The 'mola' (millstone) is named from its roundness, like 'mala' (apples) of fruit: so too the Greeks. The 'cribrum' (sieve) is so called because grain runs there, as if 'currifrum.' The 'rutabulum' (fire-rake) is named from raking out ('proruendo') dung, or the fire for the sake of baking bread. IX. ON STORAGE-VESSELS. The 'gazophylacium' (treasury) is a chest where those things are collected in the temple which are sent for the need of the poor. The name is composed of the Persian and Greek tongues; for 'gaza' in the tongue of the Persians is interpreted 'treasure,' and 'phylakion' in Greek 'custody.' The 'arca' (chest) is so called because it wards off ('arceat') and prevents sight. Hence also 'arcivum' (archive), hence also 'arcanum,' that is, a secret, from which the rest are warded off ('arcentur'). 'Cibutum' is a Greek name, which we call 'arca.' The 'loculus' (box) is a place made for putting something in the ground, or for guarding garments or money;

whence also it is said by diminution. The 'mozicia' is as it were 'modicia,' whence also 'modicum' (a small amount); Z for D, just as the Italians are wont to say 'ozie' for 'hodie' (today). The 'scrinia' (cases). The 'saccus' (sack) is named from 'sagum' (a cloak), because by sewing it up it is made as it were a cloak. The 'marsuppium' (purse) is a little sack for coins, which the Greeks call 'marsipion.' For certain Greek names are slightly inflected into Latin on account of Roman speech. The 'sitarciae' belong to sailors, from the fact that they are sewn ('sutae'). The 'involucrum' (wrapper) is so called because it holds something wrapped up ('involutum') in itself. The 'fiscus' (basket) is a public little sack, whence also 'fiscellae' and 'fiscinae' are named: the tax-collectors have this, and in it they put the public debt which is rendered to kings. 'Fiscus' is of the first form, the derivative is 'fiscina,' the diminutive 'fiscella.'

The 'canistrum' (basket) is woven from split reeds ('cannis'), whence also it is named: others assert it is Greek. The 'cistella' (little box) is named from the ribs ('costis') of reed or wood by which it is woven together. The 'cophinus' (basket) is a vessel of twigs, suited for cleaning away dung and carrying earth. Concerning which the Psalmist says on behalf of Israel (81,7): 'His hands served in the basket ('cophino').' Moreover the 'covinus' is so called as if 'covus,' as if 'cavus' (hollow). 'Corves' (baskets) are so called because they are woven together with curved ('curvatis') twigs. The 'sporta' (hamper) is so called either because it is wont to be made of broom-grass ('sparto'), or because it carries out ('exportet') something. [The 'sporta' is called from 'spartum' (broom-grass), not from carrying out as some would have it: for they were formerly made of broom-grass.] X. ON LIGHTING-VESSELS. From the tending of fire the ancients called even wood a 'focus' (hearth):

for 'phos' in Greek is 'fire' in Latin, whence also, according to certain philosophers, all things are procreated. And indeed without heat nothing is born, so much so that concerning the north the poet says (Lucan 4,108): 'It brings forth nothing in its barren cold.' Varro, however, says that hearths ('foci') are so called because they foster ('foveant') fires; for the fire itself is the flame; but whatever fosters fire is called a 'focus,' whether it be an altar or anything else in which fire is fostered. The 'lucerna' (lamp) is named from 'lychnus'; whence also the 'lu' is short, as Persius (5,181): 'The set lamps ('lucernae') belched forth a greasy cloud.' For if it were named from 'lux' (light), the verse would not stand. The 'licinius' is as it were 'lucinius'; for it is a 'cicindela' (glow-worm), a kind of lamp. The 'candelabrum' (lampstand) is named from candles ('candelis'), as if 'candelaforum,' because it carries a candle.

The 'cereus' (wax-taper) has its name by derivation from the wax ('cera') from which it is formed. Concerning which someone says (Martial 14,42): 'Here as a taper I will furnish you nocturnal fires: when the other light is withdrawn, I am another light for you.' 'Lacunaria' are hanging lights, as if 'lucanaria,' that is, shining in the air ('in aere lucentia'). 'Funalia' (torches) are so called of that which is within the wax, named from the ropes ('funibus') which our forebears had wrapped round with wax before the use of papyrus; whence also 'funera' (funerals) are named. The Greeks, however, call 'funalia' 'scolakes,' because they are twisted ('scoliae'), that is, wound about. These the Romans called 'funes' and 'funalia.' The 'funalia candelabra' among the ancients had projecting hooked spikes, on which the little cords smeared with wax or such nourishment of light were fixed. And so likewise the sharpened spikes themselves were called 'funalia.'

The 'lampas' (lamp) is a flame shining at the top, so called because it seems to display the motion of one licking ('lambentis'). The 'fax' (torch) is so called because it makes fires ('focos faciat'): its diminutive is 'facula.' The 'lanterna' (lantern) is so named because it has its light enclosed within. For it is made of glass, with the light shut up inside so that the blast of the wind cannot reach it, and so that it may easily be carried about everywhere to furnish light. The 'lucubrum' (night-light) is so called because it shines in the shade ('in umbra'); for it is a modest fire which is wont to be formed of thin tow and wax. The 'pyra' (pyre) is that which is wont to be built up of wood in the manner of an altar so as to burn; for 'pyr' means fire. But the 'pyra' is the very heap of wood while it does not yet burn; it is a 'rogus' (funeral pile) when it has begun to burn; but when already burned up it is called 'bustum' (tomb).

The 'pharos' (lighthouse) is a very great tower, which the Greeks and Latins in common called 'pharos' from the use of the thing itself, because by the sign of its flames it is seen from afar by those sailing, as we said above (15,2,37); such a one as Ptolemy is reported to have built near Alexandria for eight hundred talents. Its use is to display fires in the nocturnal course of ships in order to signal the shallows and the entrances of harbors, lest sailors, deceived by the darkness, fall upon the rocks: for Alexandria has treacherous accesses by its deceitful shallows. Hence therefore in harbors they call the machines constructed for the service of shining beforehand 'pharoi'; for 'phos' is light, 'horos' is called 'seeing.' Whence also 'Lucifer' (the morning star) is called in Greek 'phosphoros.' XI. ON LITTERS AND CHAIRS. 'Lecticae' (litters) are named from beds of gathered herbs ('lectis herbis').

The 'stratus' (bedding) is named from spreading out ('sternendo'), as if 'storiatus.' On these alone the ancients used to lie down to sleep, woolen bedding not yet having been discovered. The 'storia' (mat) is so called because it is earth spread out ('terra strata'). The 'cama' is short and near the ground; for the Greeks call something short 'chamai.' The 'cubile' (couch) is a place for lying down ('cubandi'). The 'grabatum' (cot) is Greek. The 'baianula' is a bed which is carried on a journey, from 'baiolando,' that is, carrying about. The 'pulvinar' is the bed of the rich: hence also 'pulvillus' (little cushion). 'Spingae' are those on which are sphinx-figures ('spingatae effigies'), which we call griffins. 'Punicani lecti' are small and low beds first brought from Carthage, and named from that. 'Lecticae,' or reading-couches ('plutei lecti'). Concerning which Rutilius Rufus, in his account of his own life (13):

'First,' he says, 'contrary to the custom of commanders, he himself used litters ('lecticis') in place of couches.' The 'sponda,' moreover, is the outer part of the bed, the 'pluteus' the inner. 'Geniales lecti' (marriage-beds) are properly those that are spread for girls being married; and they are named from the begetting of children ('generandis liberis'). 'Cunabula' (cradles) are little beds in which infants have been accustomed to lie, so called because they are applied to the newborn ('partui'), as if 'cynabula'; for 'kyein' in Greek is to bring forth. The 'feretrum' (bier) is so called because on it the dead are borne ('deferantur'); and it is a Greek name; for 'feretron' is said 'apo tou pherein,' that is, from carrying. For in Latin it is called 'capulus,' because it is carried over the heads ('capita') of men. So Plautus says (Mil. 628): 'a coffin-ready old man' ('capularis senex'), that is, near to the coffin ('capulo'). 'Scamna' (benches) are those which are placed by rather high beds;

and they are named from 'scandendo' [that is, from ascending]. Hence also 'scabilli' (footstools), which are placed by small beds or chairs for the sake of ascending. The 'scabillum' is also called 'suppedaneum'; for what the Greeks call 'hypopodion,' the Latins have called 'scabillum,' and others have called it 'suppedaneum,' because it is under the feet ('sub pedibus'). 'Scansilia' are steps where the honored sit in their seats. 'Sedes' (seats) are so called because among the ancient Romans there was no custom of reclining; whence they were said 'considere' (to sit down). Later, as Varro says in 'On the Life of the Roman People,' the men began to recline, the women to sit, because reclining was thought unseemly in a woman. 'Sedis' in the singular number properly belongs to a kingdom, which in Greek is called 'thronos.' Likewise the Greeks say 'thronum'; we say 'solium.'

But 'subsellia' (benches) belong to the rest, 'cathedrae' (chairs) to the teachers. The 'solium,' in which kings sit for the protection of their body, is according to some named from 'soliditas' (solidity), as if 'solidum'; according to others by antistichon, as if 'sodium,' from 'sedendo' (sitting). Whence also 'sella' (seat) is said as if 'sedda,' and 'subsellia' as if 'subseddia.' The 'sella curulis' (curule chair) was that in which the magistrates sitting rendered justice. They are called 'curules' because among the ancients the praetors and consuls, on account of the length of the journey, were conveyed to the forum in a chariot ('curru'); but the chairs, which were carried behind them, on which sitting they were wont to pronounce judgments, are named 'sellae curules' from the chariot ('curru'). 'Tripodes' are little stools ('scamelli') having three feet. But also 'candelabra' are three-footed, because they likewise have three feet. XII.

ON VEHICLES. The 'carrum' (cart) is named from the hinge ('cardine') of the wheels; whence also 'currus' (chariots) are so called, because they seem to have wheels. The 'rota' (wheel) is so called because it rushes ('ruat'); and 'rotundum' (round) is named from 'rota.' The 'reda' is a kind of four-wheeled vehicle. These the ancients called 'retas,' because they had wheels ('rotas'). The 'carpentum' is a processional kind of vehicle, as if 'carrum pompaticum.' The 'plaustrum' is a two-wheeled vehicle by which loads are carried: and it is called 'plaustrum' because it rolls ('volvitur'), as if one were to say 'pilastrum.' The 'caracutium' is a vehicle of very high wheels, as if 'carrum acutum.' The 'capsus' is a fully-enclosed 'carruca' (coach), as if 'capsa' (case). The 'pilentum' or 'petorritum' are covered four-wheeled vehicles, which matrons formerly used. Virgil (Aen. 8,666): 'The mothers in soft carriages ('pilentis').'

Horace (Sat. 1,6,104): 'More camp-servants and horses must be fed, a four-wheeled wagon ('petorrita') must be drawn.' Now the 'pilenta' were formerly of a Venetian (sky-blue) color, not, as they are now, dyed red; and none but chaste matrons could use them, just as none but they could use the fillets ('vittis'). The 'basterna' is a vehicle [for a journey, as if 'viae sternax,' composed with soft bedding, carried by two beasts]. XIII. ON THE REMAINING THINGS THAT ARE IN USE. The 'baculus' (staff) is said to have been invented by Bacchus, the discoverer of the vine, that men moved by wine might lean upon it. And just as 'baculus' comes from Bacchus, so 'bacillum' comes from 'baculus' by diminution. 'Fustes' (cudgels) are so called because, fixed in the ground, they stand ('praefixi stent'), which the country people call 'pali' (stakes); with these the young men are struck for their crimes. 'Vectes' (levers, bars) are so called because they are wielded ('vectentur') by hands, whence doors and stones are wrenched away.

'Forfices' (shears): according to the etymology, if they are named from 'filum' (thread), an F is put, as 'forfices' which belong to tailors; if from 'pilus' (hair), a P, as 'forpices' which belong to barbers; if from 'accipiendo' (taking), a C, as 'forcipes,' because they take up the hot ('formum capiant'), which belong to smiths. For the ancients called what is hot 'formum'; whence also 'formosus' (beautiful, 'shapely, glowing'). The 'novacula' (razor) [is so called because it renews ('innovet') the face]. 'Pectines' (combs) are said because they make the hair combed ('pexos') and arranged. The 'calamistrum' (curling-iron) is a pin which, heated and applied, warms and curls the hair. Whence also those who curl their hair are called 'calamistrati.' The 'clavis' (key) is so called because it shuts ('claudat') and opens. The 'catenatum' (chain-lock) is so called because by seizing ('capiendo') it holds. 'Horologia' (clocks, sundials) are so called because there we read ('legamus') the hours, that is, we gather them ('colligamus');

for it is placed on sundials, where the shadow runs by the peg along the lines, so as to show whatever hour of the day it is. XIV. ON RUSTIC IMPLEMENTS. The 'vomer' (plowshare) is so called because it turns up ('eruat') the earth by force ('vi'), or from 'evomendo' (vomiting out) the earth. Concerning which Lucretius (1,314): 'The iron hook of the plow, the plowshare, wears away unseen in the fields, and takes on brightness through its losses.' The 'aratrum' (plow) is named from plowing ('arando') the earth, as if 'araterrium.' The 'buris' is the curved part of the plow, so called as if 'boos oura,' because it is in the likeness of an ox's tail. The 'dentale' is the front part of the plow; on which the plowshare is fitted like a tooth ('dens'). 'Cultelli' (small knives) are named from cultivation ('cultura'), because with them the ancients used to prune the tree and the vine, before pruning-hooks ('falces') had been discovered. The 'falcis' (sickle) is that with which trees and vines are pruned;

and it is called 'falcis' because with these the soldiers used first to cut down the fern-grass ('herbam filicem'). Whence comes that verse (Martial 14,34): 'The sure peace of our leader has bent me to peaceful uses: now I belong to the farmer, before I belonged to the soldier.' The 'falcastrum' is named from its likeness to a sickle ('falcis'): it is a curved iron tool with a long handle, for cutting down the density of thickets. These are also called 'runcones,' with which brambles are cut, so named from 'runcando' (weeding out). The 'serrula' (small saw) is a very thin blade of iron cutting through trees or branches by the biting of its teeth. 'Rastra' (rakes, mattocks) are so called either from scraping ('radendo') the earth or from the sparseness ('raritate') of their teeth. 'Ligones' (hoes) are so called because they lift up ('levent') the earth, as if 'levones.' The 'scudicia' is so called because it opens up the earth around the tree-trunk ('codicem');

and although its use is had in other works, yet it retains its name from the trunk ('codice'). This others call generally a 'fossorium' (digger), because it makes a pit ('foveam'), as if 'fovessorium.' The 'sarculus' (hoe). And they are either single or two-pronged ('bicornes'). The farmers call a two-forked iron tool by which seeds are planted a 'pastinatum.' Whence also old vineyards which are dug over again are said to be 'repastinari' (trenched anew). The 'cylindrus' is a smooth stone in the shape of a column, which has received its name from its rolling ('volubilitate'). Concerning which Virgil (Georg. 1,178): 'The threshing-floor above all must be leveled with a great roller ('cylindro'), and turned by hand.' The 'tribula' is a kind of vehicle by which grain is threshed ('teruntur'), and for this reason it is so called. The 'pala' (shovel), which is commonly called a 'ventilabrum' (winnowing-fan), is named from winnowing ('ventilandis') the chaff ('paleis').

'Furcillae' (small forks) are so called because with them grain is stirred ('celluntur'), that is, moved. Whence also 'oscilla' (swinging things) are so called from the fact that the mouths ('ora') are moved ('cillantur'), that is, are set in motion. For 'cillere' is to move. 'Tesserae' are those by which the number of grain-measures is marked out. The 'trapetum' is an olive-mill. The 'prelum' (press-beam) is the beam by which the trodden grape is pressed, named from pressing ('premendo'), as if 'pressorium.' The 'prelum,' by which oil is pressed. The 'lacus' (vat), into which the liquid flows off, by which oil and wine are forced out by squeezing from grapes or olives. 'Verennes' are named from carrying ('vehere'), that is, exporting. 'Qualos' (wickerwork baskets) and 'cola' (strainers) of the presses, through which the must flows, are named from straining ('colando'). The 'fisclum' is as it were 'fiscolum,' named from straining oil, or as if a 'fiscella' (little basket) for oil. XV. ON GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. The 'rota' (waterwheel) is so called because it as it were rushes ('ruat'):

for it is a machine by which water is drawn out from a river. Lucretius (5,517): 'We see the wheels ('rotas') turn in the river, and the buckets ('austra').' The 'austra,' that is, the wheel, is named from drawing ('auriendo') water. The 'girgillus' is so called because it is turned in a circle ('in giro'): for it is a piece of wood movable on a crosswise pole, from which a rope with a bucket or skin is let down into a well for the sake of drawing water. The garden-workers call a long piece of wood by which they draw waters a 'telon.' And the 'telon' is named from its length ('longitudine'); for 'telon' among the Greeks means whatever is long; whence also they call the weasel 'mustela' as if 'mus longus' (a long mouse). This implement the Spaniards call a 'ciconia' (stork), because it imitates the bird of the same name, raising water and lowering its beak, while it clatters. The 'ama' (bucket).

The 'lupus' (wolf), which is also called 'canicula' (little dog), an iron 'harpax' (grappling-hook), because, if anything falls into the well, it seizes and draws it out; whence also it received its name. The 'harpax' is so called because it snatches ('arripit'); for 'harpe' in Greek is to snatch. The 'sarculus' (hoe). XVI. ON THE IMPLEMENTS OF HORSES. 'Phalerae' (trappings) are ornaments of horses; and it is a Greek word. 'Frena' (bridles, bits) are so called because they compel horses to chafe ('fremere'), or because horses grind ('frendant') and bite these with their teeth. Whence also suckling piglets are called 'nefrendes,' because they do not yet grind ('frendant') anything, that is, do not break it up with their teeth. Hence also 'faba fresa' (crushed bean), which is ground. 'Lupati' are the harshest bits: they are called 'lupati' from wolf-teeth ('lupinis dentibus'), which are uneven, whence also their bite does grievous harm. The 'camus' (muzzle).

'Habenae' (reins) are named from 'habendo' (holding), because with them we hold ('habeamus') horses, that is, we restrain them; whence also horses are called 'habiles' (manageable). These are also 'retinacula,' from restraining ('retinendo'). 'Lora' (thongs, reins). 'Capistri' (halters) are named from the head ('capite') of the beasts of burden. The 'sella' (saddle) from sitting ('sedendo'), as if 'sedda.' The 'antela' as if 'antesella' (front-saddle-strap), just as the 'postela' as if 'postsella' (rear-strap). 'Cingulum' (girth) of the kind belonging to men is of the neuter gender; but of animals we say these 'cingulas' in the feminine gender. The 'sagma' (packsaddle), which is commonly said in corrupted form 'salma,' is named from the spreading of horse-cloths ('stratu sagorum'): whence also a 'caballus sagmarius' (pack-horse), a 'mula sagmaria' (pack-mule). The 'capulum' is a rope, from 'capiendo' (taking), because by it untamed beasts of burden are taken hold of.

'Calcaria' (spurs) are so called because they are bound at the heel ('calce') of a man, that is, at the hinder part of the foot, for goading the horses which must either fight or run, on account of the sluggishness or fear of the animals. For 'stimuli' (goads) are named from fear ('timore'), though there are also goads of desire. 'Strigiles' (currycombs) are named from wiping ('tergendo'), because with these horses are wiped ('tergantur'). The 'character' is a heated iron by which marks are branded on cattle: 'charakter' in Greek is called 'forma' (shape, stamp) in Latin. The 'cauterium' (branding-iron) is so called as if 'cauturium,' because it burns ('urat') and there is in it a provident and severe caution ('cautio') that, while it is seen whose the animal is, greed may be curbed. This is applied sometimes as a mark, sometimes as a cure, so that the force of a disease may be dried up by the burning of fire.