詞源與文集 第 9 章

I. ON THE LANGUAGES OF THE NATIONS. The diversity of languages arose at the building of the tower after the Flood. For before the pride of that tower divided human society into diverse sounds of signs, there was one language of all nations, which is called Hebrew; which the Patriarchs and Prophets used, not only in their speech but also in the sacred letters. In the beginning there were as many languages as nations; then there came to be more nations than languages, because from one language many nations arose. Now languages (linguae) are so called in this passage in place of the words that are made by the tongue (lingua), by that manner of speaking whereby that which effects is named from that which is effected; just as 'mouth' (os) is commonly used for words, and 'hand' (manus) for letters.

Now there are three sacred languages: Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, which most excel in all the world. For in these three languages the charge against the Lord was written by Pilate upon the cross. Hence also, on account of the obscurity of the Holy Scriptures, a knowledge of these three languages is necessary, so that one may have recourse to another whenever the wording of one language has raised any doubt about a name or its interpretation. The Greek language is held to be more illustrious than the rest of the nations. For it is more sonorous than Latin and all languages: its variety is distinguished in five parts. The first of these is called Koine, that is, mixed or common, which all use. The second is Attic, that is, Athenian, which all the authors of Greece employed.

The third is Doric, which the Egyptians and Syrians have. The fourth is Ionic, the fifth Aeolic, which they said were spoken 'Aeolistically' (aiolisti). And there are in the observance of the Greek language such fixed distinctions of this kind; for their speech is thus divided up. Some have said that there are four Latin languages, that is, the Ancient (Prisca), the Latin, the Roman, and the Mixed. The Ancient is that which the most ancient inhabitants of Italy used under Janus and Saturn, unpolished, as the songs of the Salii show. The Latin is that which the Tuscans and the rest in Latium spoke under Latinus and the kings, in which the Twelve Tables were written.

The Roman is that which began after the kings were driven out by the Roman people, in which the poets Naevius, Plautus, Ennius, and Virgil, and among the orators Gracchus, Cato, Cicero and the rest poured forth their works. The Mixed is that which, after the empire had been extended more widely, burst into the Roman commonwealth together with foreign customs and men, corrupting the integrity of speech through solecisms and barbarisms. Now all the nations of the East press the tongue and words in the throat, like the Hebrews and Syrians. All the peoples of the middle lands strike their speech against the palate, like the Greeks and Asians. All the nations of the West break their words upon the teeth, like the Italians and Spaniards. The Syrian and the Chaldaean are near to the Hebrew in speech, agreeing in most of it and in the sound of the letters.

Some, however, think that this language itself is Chaldaean, because Abraham was of the Chaldaeans. But if this is accepted, how is it that in Daniel the Hebrew boys are ordered to be taught a language which they did not know? Now every man can master any language, whether Greek, or Latin, or that of the other nations, either by hearing it, or by receiving it in reading from a teacher. But although the knowledge of all languages is difficult for anyone, no one is so slothful that, placed among his own people, he does not know the language of his own people. For what else must such a man be thought but worse than the brute animals? For they at least express the cry of their own proper voice, while this man is worse, who lacks the knowledge of his own language.

In what kind of language God spoke at the beginning of the world, when he said, 'Let there be light,' it is difficult to discover. For as yet there were no languages. Likewise, in what language he afterward sounded to the outer ears of men, especially speaking to the first man, or to the prophets, or when the voice of God speaking bodily sounded forth, 'You are my beloved Son'—here it is believed by some that that language was one and the only one, which existed before there was diversity of languages. For among the diverse nations it is believed that God speaks to them in the same language which the men themselves use, so that he may be understood by them.

But God speaks to men not through his invisible substance, but through a bodily creature, through which he also willed to appear to men when he spoke. The Apostle also says (1 Corinthians 13,1): 'If I speak with the tongues of men and of angels.' Here it is asked in what language the angels speak; not that there are any languages of angels, but this is said by way of exaggeration. Likewise it is asked in what language men will speak in the future: this is nowhere found. For the Apostle says (1 Corinthians 13,8): 'Whether there be tongues, they shall cease.' Now we have placed the discussion of languages first, and then of nations, because from languages came nations, not from nations languages. II. ON THE NAMES OF THE NATIONS.

A nation (gens) is a multitude sprung from one origin, or distinguished from another people according to its own grouping, as those of Greece and of Asia. Hence too is 'gentility' (gentilitas) named. Now a nation is so called on account of the generations of families, that is, from begetting (gignendo), just as a people (natio) is from being born (nascendo). The nations by whom the earth was divided are fifteen from Japheth, thirty-one from Ham, twenty-seven from Shem, which make seventy-three, or rather, as reason declares, seventy-two; and as many languages, which began to exist throughout the lands, and which by increasing filled the provinces and islands. The five sons of Shem individually begot individual nations. Of these the first was Elam, from whom the Elamites, chiefs of Persia;

the second was Asshur, from whom the Assyrian empire sprang forth; the third Arphaxad, from whom the nation of the Chaldaeans arose; the fourth Lud, from whom the Lydians; the fifth Aram, from whom the Syrians, whose metropolis was Damascus. The sons of Aram, grandsons of Shem, were four: Uz and Ul and Gether and Mes. Uz was the founder of Trachonitis, who held the principality between Palestine and Coele-Syria, whence came Job, according to what is written (Job 1,1): 'There was a man in the land of Uz'; the second, Ul, from whom the Armenians; the third, Gether, from whom the Acarnanians or Carians; the fourth, Mes, from whom are those who are called Maeonians. The posterity of Arphaxad, son of Shem: Heber, grandson of Arphaxad, from whom the Hebrews; Joktan, son of Heber, from whom the nation of the Indians arose;

Shelah, son of Joktan, from whom the Bactrians, although others suppose them to be exiles of the Scythians. Ishmael, son of Abraham, from whom the Ishmaelites, who now by a corrupted name are called Saracens, as though from Sarah, and Agarenes from Hagar. Nebaioth, son of Ishmael, from whom the Nabataeans, who dwell from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. Moab and Ammon, sons of Lot, from whom the Moabites and Ammonites. Edom, son of Esau, from whom the Idumaeans. These are the nations that descend from the stock of Shem, possessing the southern land from the rising of the sun as far as the Phoenicians. The sons of Ham were four, from whom arose these nations: Cush, from whom the Ethiopians were begotten; Mizraim, from whom the Egyptians are said to have sprung; Put, from whom the Libyans.

Whence too a river of Mauretania is called Put down to the present, and all the region around it Puthensian. Canaan, from whom the Africans and Phoenicians and the ten nations of the Canaanites. Likewise, from the grandsons of Ham, the sons of Cush, grandsons of Ham, were six. The sons of Cush: Seba and Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, Sabteca, Cuza. Seba, from whom were begotten and named the Sabaeans, of whom Virgil says (Georgics 2,117): 'The frankincense-bearing branch belongs to the Sabaeans alone.' These are also the Arabs. Havilah, from whom the Getuli, clinging to the desert in the part of more remote Africa. Sabtah, from whom the Sabatheni, who are now called Astabari. But Raamah and Sabteca and Cuza gradually lost their ancient names, and what they now have from the old ones is unknown. The sons of Raamah: Sheba and Dedan.

This Sheba is written with the letter Sin in Hebrew; but that former Saba with Samech, from whom the Sabaeans were named. Now Saba is interpreted as Arabia. Dedan, from whom is a nation of Ethiopia in the western region. The sons of Mizraim: the Ludim, from whom the Libyans, who once were called Puthaeans. The Casluhim, from whom the Philistines, whom the ancients called Allophyloi, and we now by corruption call Palestinians. The other six nations are unknown, because, overthrown in the Ethiopian war, they came to the point of oblivion of their former names. The sons of Canaan were eleven, from whom the ten nations of the Canaanites, whose land, these being expelled, the Jews possessed. Of these the firstborn was Sidon, from whom the Sidonians. Whence too their city in Phoenicia is called Sidon.

The second was Heth, from whom the Hittites. The third was Jebus, from whom the Jebusites, to whom Jerusalem belonged. The fourth was the Amorite, from whom the Amorites. The fifth was the Girgashite, from whom the Girgashites. The sixth was the Hivite, from whom the Hivites. These are the Gabaonites, from the city of Gabaon, who came as suppliants to Joshua. The seventh was the Arkite, who founded Arca, a town situated opposite Tripolis at the roots of Lebanon. The eighth was the Sinite, from whom the Sinites. The ninth was Aradius, from whom are the Aradii, who possessed the island of Aradus, separated by a narrow strait from the Phoenician shore. The tenth was Samareus, from whom is the noble city of Syria which is called Coele. The eleventh was Amathaeus. These are the nations of the stock of Ham, who hold all the southern part from Sidon as far as the strait of Gades.

Likewise the tribes of the sons of Japheth. The sons of Japheth are named as seven: Gomer, from whom the Galatians, that is, the Gauls. Magog, from whom they suppose the Scythians and Goths drew their origin. Madai, from whom they think the Medes exist. Javan, from whom the Ionians, who are also the Greeks; whence also the Ionian Sea. Tubal, from whom the Iberians, who are also the Spaniards; although some suspect that the Italians too are from him. Meshech, from whom the Cappadocians; whence too a city among them is to this day called Mazaca. Tiras, from whom the Thracians; whose name is not much altered, as though 'Tiraces.' The sons of Gomer, grandsons of Japheth: Ashkenaz, from whom the Sarmatians, whom the Greeks call Rhegini. Riphath, from whom the Paphlagonians. Togarmah, from whom are the Phrygians.

The sons of Javan: Elishah, from whom the Greeks called Elisaei, who are called Aeolians. Whence too the fifth Greek language is called Aeolis. Tarshish, from whom the Cilicians, as Josephus thinks. Whence too their metropolis is called Tarsus. Kittim, from whom the Citii, that is, the Cyprians, from whom to this day the city is named Citium. Dodanim, from whom the Rhodians. These are the nations of the stock of Japheth, who possess from the Taurus mountain northward the middle part of Asia and all of Europe as far as the British Ocean, leaving their names to both places and peoples; of which many were afterward changed, while the rest remain as they were.

For the names of many nations have partly remained, so that even today it appears from what they were derived, as from Asshur the Assyrians, from Heber the Hebrews; but partly they have been so changed by the antiquity of time that scarcely can the most learned men, poring over the most ancient histories, find the origins not of all but of some of these nations. For as to the fact that from the son of Ham, who is called Mizraim, the Egyptians arose, no origin of the name resounds here, just as neither of the Ethiopians, who are said to pertain to that son of Ham who was called Cush. And if all things are considered, yet more names of nations appear changed than remaining; to which reason afterward gave diverse names.

For the Indians are named from the river Indus, which bounds them on the western side. The Seres obtained their name from their own town, a nation situated toward the East, among whom wool is woven from trees. Concerning them is that verse: 'The Seres, unknown by face, but known by their fleece.' The Gangaridae are peoples between the Assyrians and Indians, dwelling around the river Ganges. Whence also they were called Gangaridae. The Hyrcanians are named from the Hyrcanian forest, where there are very many tigers. The Bactrians were Scythians, who, driven from their seats by the faction of their own people, settled beside the eastern river Bactros, from whose name they also obtained their name. The king of this nation was Zoroaster, the inventor of the magic art. The Parthians too draw their origin from the Scythians.

For they were exiles of theirs, which is also made manifest by their name. For in the Scythian tongue exiles are called 'Parthi.' These, similarly to the Bactrians, driven from Scythia by domestic seditions, first stealthily occupied the wildernesses next to Hyrcania, then obtained a great part of the territories even by valor. The Assyrians are named from Asshur, son of Shem, a most powerful nation, which held all the region in the middle from the Euphrates as far as the boundaries of the Indians. The Medes are thought to be named after their own king. For Jason, brother of King Pelias, was driven from Thessaly by the sons of Pelias, together with his wife Medea;

whose stepson was Medus, king of the Athenians, who after the death of Jason subdued the region of the East, and there founded the city Media, and named the nation of the Medes after his own name. But we find in Genesis that Madai was the author of the nation of the Medes, from whom they were also named, as was said above. The Persians were named from King Perseus, who, crossing from Greece into Asia, there subdued the barbarian nations by a grievous and long war, and at last as victor gave his name to the subject nation. Now the Persians before Cyrus were ignoble, and were held of no account among the nations. The Medes were always most powerful. The Chasdai, who are now called Chaldaeans, were named after Chesed, son of Nachor, brother of Abraham.

The Sabaeans are so called apo tou sebesthai, which is to supplicate and to venerate, because we venerate the divinity through their frankincense. These are also the Arabs, because they are in the mountains of Arabia which are called Lebanon and Antilebanon, where frankincense is gathered. The Syrians are said to be named from Surim, who was a grandson of Abraham by Keturah. Those whom the ancients called Assyrians we now call Syrians, naming the whole from a part. The Hebrews were named from Heber, who was the great-grandson of Shem. But the Israelites were named from Israel, son of Isaac. For Israel was the patriarch of the Hebrews, from whom the twelve tribes of the Jews obtained the name of Israel. But the schism of the ten tribes imposed the name upon the Jews. For before this they were called Hebrews or Israelites.

But from the time when the people of God was divided into two kingdoms, then the two tribes, which had their kings from the stock of Judah, obtained the name of the Jews. The remaining portion of ten tribes, which set up a king for itself in Samaria, retained on account of the greatness of the people the ancient name of Israel. The nation of the Samaritans took its beginning from the Assyrians, who, being transplanted, dwelt in Samaria; they are interpreted in Latin as 'guardians,' because, when Israel had been led into captivity, these men were settled in the land of their region as a garrison. Phoenix, the brother of Cadmus, having set out from the Egyptian Thebes into Syria, reigned at Sidon, and named those peoples Phoenicians after his own name, and called that province Phoenicia.

The Sidonians, however, are said to have derived their name from the city which is called Sidon. The Saracens are so called either because they claim to be born of Sarah, or, as the gentiles say, because they are of the origin of the Syrians, as it were 'Syriginae.' These inhabit a very extensive wilderness. They are also the Ishmaelites, as the book of Genesis teaches, because they are descended from Ishmael. They are also the Kedarites, from a son of Ishmael. They are also the Hagarenes, from Hagar; who, as we have said, are by a distorted name called Saracens, because they boast that they are born of Sarah. The Philistines are the same as the Palestinians, because the Hebrew tongue does not have the letter P, but instead of it uses the Greek Phi. Hence they are called Philistines instead of Palestinians, that is, from their own city.

The same are also called Allophyli, that is, foreigners, for this reason: because they were always enemies of Israel, and were far separated from their kindred and fellowship. The Canaanites were named from Canaan the son of Ham, whose land the Jews possessed. From his stock came Emor, the father of Shechem, from whom the Amorites are named. The Egyptians were called from a certain king Aegyptus. For before they were called Aerii. Now in the Hebrew tongue 'Egyptians' is interpreted as 'those who afflict,' because they afflicted the people of God before it was freed by divine aid. Armenius, from Thessaly, one of the number of the leaders of Jason who set out to the Colchians, having gathered together the multitude which, having lost their king Jason, wandered here and there, founded Armenia, and gave the nation a name from his own appellation.

There is a Persian frontier which divides the Scythians from them, surnamed 'Scytha'; and from this frontier the Scythians are held by some to have been named, a nation always reckoned most ancient. These founded the Parthians and Bactrians; their women, moreover, founded the kingdoms of the Amazons. The Massagetae are of Scythian origin. And they are called Massagetae as it were 'the heavy,' that is, the 'strong Getae.' For thus Livy calls silver 'heavy,' that is, in masses. These are they who dwell in the northern regions between the Scythians and the Albanians. The Amazons are so called either because they lived together without men, as it were 'AMA ZON,' or because their right breasts were burned off, lest the shooting of arrows be hindered, as it were 'ANEU MAZON.' For they laid bare the breast which they had cauterized. These Titianus calls 'the one-breasted.'

For this is Amazon, as it were 'ANEU MAZOU,' that is, 'without a breast.' These no longer exist, because they were partly destroyed by Hercules, partly by Achilles or Alexander even to utter extermination. In the regions of Asiatic Scythia the nations which believe themselves the descendants of Jason are born with white hair on account of the continual snows; and the very color of their hair gave the nation its name. And thence they are called Albani. The pupil of their eye is grey, that is, tinted, so that they see more by night than by day. The Albani, moreover, were neighbors of the Amazons. The Hugni, formerly called Huns, were at last named Avars after their own king; who at first dwelt in the farthest Maeotis between the icy Tanais and the monstrous peoples of the Massagetae.

Then, with swift horses, they burst forth from the crags of the Caucasus, while the barrier of Alexander held back the wild nations, and held the East captive for twenty years, and exacted an annual tribute from the Egyptians and the Ethiopians. The nation of the Trojans was formerly named Dardanian, from Dardanus. For Dardanus and Iasius were brothers who set out from Greece; of these Iasius came to Thrace, Dardanus to Phrygia, and there he was the first to reign. After him his son Ericthonius, then his grandson Tros, from whom they were named Trojans. The Galatians are known to be Gauls, who, summoned as auxiliaries by the king of Bithynia, divided the kingdom with him when victory was won; and so afterward, mingled with the Greeks, they were first called Gallo-Greeks, and now, from the ancient name of the Gauls, are named Galatians.

The Greeks were formerly called Thessalians from Thessalus, and afterward were named Greeks from king Graecus. For properly the Greeks are Thessalians. They say, moreover, that the Lapithae were a nation of Thessaly, once dwelling about the river Peneus, named from Lapitha the daughter of Apollo. The Sicyonians are called Greeks, from king Sicyon. These were first called Agialei, from king Agealeus, who first ruled over Sicyon; from whom also the city Agealea was named, which is now called Peloponnesus after its king Pelops. They are also the Arcadians, named from Arcas, the son of Jupiter and Callisto. The Danai were named from king Danaus. They are also the Argives, surnamed from Argus their founder.

After Apis, king of the Greeks, had died, his son Argus succeeded him in the kingdom, and from him they were called Argives; who also after his death began to be held by them as a god, honored with a temple and sacrifice. The Achaeans, who are also the Achivi, were named from Achaeus the son of Jupiter. The Pelasgians were so named because they seemed to have arrived in Italy in the spring season with sails spread out, like birds. For Varro records that they first landed in Italy. The Greeks, however, hold that the Pelasgians were named from the son of Jupiter and Larissa. The Myrmidons were the companions of Achilles; the Dolopes of Pyrrhus. The Myrmidons were so called on account of their cunning, as it were 'MURMEKES,' that is, ants. Eratosthenes, however, says that the Myrmidons were named from their leader Myrmidon, the son of Jupiter and Eurymedusa.

To Cecrops, king of the Athenians, succeeded Cranaus, whose daughter Atthis gave a name to both the region and the nation. And from her they were surnamed Attici, who are the Athenians. Ion, a brave man, from his own name called those same Athenians Ionians. The Macedonians were formerly named Emathii, from the name of king Emathion; afterward they were called Macedonians. The Epirotes, from Pyrrhus the son of Achilles, were first called Pyrrhidae, but afterward, from king Epirus, they ventured to cross over to Italy. Dorus was the son of Neptune and Ellepis, from whom the Dorians derive both their origin and their name. They are, moreover, a part of the Greek nation; from whom also the third language of the Greeks is named, which is called Doric. The Lacedaemonians were named from Lacedaemon the son of Semele.

These, long persevering in war against the Messenians, fearing lest by the long duration of the conflict they should lose the hope of offspring, ordered that their maidens should lie with the young men left at home; and thus, from the promiscuous coupling of the maidens, young men born of uncertain fathers were called Spartans from the mark of their mothers' shame. For those same are Spartans whom they also call Lacedaemonians. The Thracians are said to have both arisen from and been named after the son of Japheth who was called Thiras, as was said above; although the gentiles suppose them to be so named from their manners, because they are savage ('truces'). For they were the fiercest of all nations, whence also many fabulous things are recorded of them:

namely, that they used to sacrifice captives to their gods, and were accustomed to drink human blood from the bones of skulls. Concerning whom Virgil (Aeneid 3.44): 'Alas, flee the cruel lands, flee the greedy shore'; as though speaking of the cruel and greedy. The nation of the Istrians derives its origin from the Colchians, who, sent to pursue the Argonauts, when they entered the river Ister from the Pontus, were named from the appellation of the river by which they withdrew from the sea. The Romans were named from the name of Romulus, who founded the city of Rome and gave a name to both the nation and the city. These were formerly called Saturnii from Saturn, and Latini from Latinus. For Latinus was a king of Italy, who from his own name called them Latins, who were afterward named Romans.

These were also called Quirites, because Romulus was called Quirinus, since he always used a spear, which in the Sabine tongue is called 'curis.' Italus also and Sabinus and Sicanus were brothers, from whom names were imposed on the peoples and the regions. For from Italus they were surnamed Itali, from Sabinus Sabini, from Sicanus Sicani, who are also the Siculi, that is, the Sicilians. The Tusci are a nation of Italy, named from the frequency of sacrifices and of incense, that is, 'APO TOU THUSIAZEIN.' The Umbri are a nation of Italy, but an offshoot of the ancient Gauls, who inhabit the Apennine mountain; concerning whom the histories relate that, because they survived the rains at the time of a watery disaster, they were on this account named 'OMBRIOUS' in Greek.

The Marsi, a nation of Italy, were named from Marsyas, a companion of Liber, who showed them the use of the vine; and for this they made a statue of him, which the Romans afterward carried off when the Marsi were conquered. The Greeks, however, call the Marsi 'Osci,' as it were 'OTHSKOUS,' because they have many serpents, and 'OPHIS' means serpent. And they are unharmed by the sorceries of spells. They inhabit, moreover, the tract of the Apennine mountain together with the Umbri. [The historian Alexander says: 'Some say that the Volsci were named from Volscus, the son of Antiphates the Laestrygonian. Fabius also says that men who set out from Sicily were, by a corruption of the name, called Volsci.'] The Goths are thought to be named from Magog the son of Japheth, from the resemblance of the last syllable; whom the ancients called Getae rather than Goths;

a nation strong and most mighty, of tall bodily bulk, terrible in their kind of arms. Concerning whom Lucan (2.54): 'On this side let the Dacian press, on that let the Getan encounter the Iberians.' The Daci, moreover, were an offshoot of the Goths, and they think they are called Daci, as it were 'Dagi,' because they were begotten of the stock of the Goths. Concerning whom that poet (Paulinus to Nicetas 17): 'You will go far off, even to the northern Daci.' The Bessi were barbarians, who are believed to have been so named from the multitude of their oxen. Concerning whom a certain writer (Paulinus to Nicetas 243): 'He who dwells in the middle of the land, or that felt-capped dweller of the rich bank, wealthy in many an ox.' The Gepidae used foot-combat more than horse-combat, and were named for this reason. The Sarmatians, armed, used to ride over the open plains before Lentulus barred them at the Danube;

and thence, on account of their zeal for arms, they are thought to be named Sarmatians. The river Lanus is said to flow beyond the Danube, from which the Alani were named, just as also the peoples dwelling beside the river Lemannus are called Alemanni. Concerning whom Lucan (1.396): 'They abandoned their tents pitched at hollow Lemannus.' The Langobards are commonly said to be named from their long beard, never shorn. The river Vindilicus bursts forth from the farthest parts of Gaul, beside which river the Vandals are said to have dwelt and to have derived their name from it. The Germanic nations are so called because they are of huge bodies and huge nations, hardened by the most savage cold; who drew their manners from the very harshness of the sky, being of ferocious spirit and always untamed, living by plunder and hunting.

Of these there are very many nations, various in their arms, of diverse dress, discordant in their tongues, and uncertain in the origin of their names; such as the Tolosates, Amsivari, Quadi, Tungri, Marcomanni, Bructeri, Chamavi, Blangiani, Tubantes; whose barbaric savagery signifies a certain horror even in their very names. The Suevi were a part of the Germans at the extremity of the North. Concerning whom Lucan (2.51): 'From the farthest north he pours forth the yellow-haired Suevi.' Many have recorded that they had a hundred cantons and peoples. The Suevi, moreover, are thought to be named from Mount Suevus, which forms the beginning of Germany from the east, whose places they inhabited.

The Burgundians, once, when inner Germany had been subdued by the Romans, were stationed along the boundaries of the camps by Tiberius Caesar, and grew together into a great nation, and thus took their name from the places; for the numerous dwellings established along the boundaries are commonly called 'burgi.' These afterward, having become rebels against the Romans, more than eighty thousand armed men, settled on the bank of the river Rhine, and obtained the name of the nation. The nation of the Saxons, set on the shores of the Ocean and in impassable marshes, is capable in valor and agility. Whence also they were named, because it is a hard and most robust kind of men, and surpassing the rest in piracy. The Franks are thought to be named from a certain leader of their own. Others suppose them named from the ferocity of their manners.

For among them are unruly manners, a natural ferocity of spirit. Some suspect that the Britons were named in Latin, because they are brutish ('bruti'), a nation within the Ocean, placed as it were outside the world by the sea flowing between. Concerning whom Virgil (Eclogues 1.67): 'The Britons wholly sundered from all the world.' The Scots have their name in their own tongue from their painted body, because they are marked with iron points and the tattoo of ink in various figures. The Gauls were named from the whiteness of their body. For 'GALA' in Greek means milk. Whence also the Sibyl thus calls them, when she says of them (Virgil, Aeneid 8.660): 'Then their milk-white necks are entwined with gold.' For according to the diversity of the sky, there exist both the faces of men and their colors, and the sizes of bodies, and the diversities of dispositions.

Hence we perceive that the Romans are grave, the Greeks fickle, the Africans crafty, the Gauls fierce by nature and keener in wit, which the nature of the climates brings about. The Gallic Senones, moreover, were anciently called Xenones, because they had received Liber with hospitality; afterward the X was changed into the letter S. Vacca was a town near the Pyrenees, from which the Vaccaei were surnamed, concerning whom it is believed the poet spoke (cf. Virgil, Aeneid 4.42): 'and the Vaccaei roaming far and wide.' These inhabit a very extensive wilderness on the ridges of the Pyrenees. The same are also the Vascones, as it were 'Vaccones,' the C being changed into the letter S. These Gnaeus Pompey, when Spain had been subdued and he was hastening to come to his triumph, brought down from the ridges of the Pyrenees and gathered into one town. Whence also the city of the Convenae received its name.

The Hispani were first surnamed Iberi from the river Iberus, afterward Hispani from Hispalus. The Galleci were named from their fairness, whence also the Galli. For they are fairer than the rest of the peoples of Spain. These claim a Greek origin for themselves. Whence also by natural talent they are shrewd. For indeed, after the end of the Trojan war, Teucer, hateful to his father Telamon because of the death of his brother Ajax, when he was not received into the kingdom, withdrew to Cyprus, and there founded a city with the name of his ancient homeland, Salamis; thence he set out for Gallaecia, and having established his seat, gave the nation a name from the place. The Astures are a nation of Spain, so called because they dwell around the river Astura, fenced in by mountains and dense forests.

The Cantabri, a nation of Spain, were named from the appellation of a city and of the river Iberus, on which they are settled. Their spirit is stubborn, and more inclined to brigandage and to warfare, or always ready to endure blows. The Celtiberi were of the Celtic Gauls, from whose name the region Celtiberia was called. For from the Spanish river Iberus, where they settled, and from the Gauls, who were called Celtici, both names being mixed, they were named Celtiberi. The Afri were named from one of the descendants of Abraham, who was called Afer, who is said to have led an army against Libya, and there, when the enemies had been conquered, to have settled; and his descendants named both the Afri and Africa from the name of their forefather.

The Poeni, moreover, are the Carthaginians, named from the Phoenicians, who set out with Dido. But the Tyrians were named from the Phoenician city of Tyre, from which they set out and came to the shore of Africa. The Getuli are said to have been Getae, who, having embarked in ships from their own places in a huge column, occupied the places of the Syrtes in Libya; and because they had come from the Getae, by a derived name they were surnamed Getuli. Whence also there is an opinion among the Goths that, on account of an ancient kinship, they call the Moors near to themselves by consanguinity. Africa, moreover, at the beginning was held by the Libyans, then by the Afri, after these by the Getuli, and last by the Moors and Numidians. The Moors and Numidians, as the Afri think, took their beginning and their name thus.

For after Hercules perished in Spain, and his army, composed of various nations, having lost its leader, sought seats for itself here and there, from that number the Medes and Persians and Armenians, carried across by ships into Africa, occupied the places nearest the sea. But the Persians, since they found no material in the fields for building dwellings, and an unfamiliar tongue prevented commerce, wandered through the open fields and diverse solitudes, and from their wandering foragings named themselves in their own tongue Numidae, that is, wanderers and rovers without a town. The Medes, however, mingled with the Libyans, who inhabited the region nearest to Spain;

whose name the Libyans gradually corrupted, in their barbarous tongue calling them Mauri instead of Medi; although the Moors are so named by the Greeks on account of their color. For the Greeks call black 'MAURON.' For being scorched by the heat-bearing warmth, they take on the appearance of a dark color. Massylia is a city of Africa, not far from Atlas and the gardens of the Hesperides; from which city the Massyli were named, whom we corruptly call Massuli, concerning whom Virgil (Aeneid 4.483): 'Here a priestess of the Massylian nation was shown to me.' The Gaulali are nations ranging from the south as far as the Hesperian Ocean. To these the island of Gaulos gave a name, which is near Ethiopia, where no serpent is born or lives.

The Garamantes are peoples of Africa dwelling near Cyrene, named from king Garamas the son of Apollo, who there founded the town of Garama from his own name. They are, moreover, nearest to the nations of the Ethiopians. Concerning whom Virgil (Eclogues 8.44): 'the farthest Garamantes.' 'Farthest,' because they are savage and removed from the fellowship of humanity. The Hesperii, however, are those who dwell about Spain. For Spain is Hesperia. The Ethiopians are named from the son of Ham, who was called Chus, from whom they draw their origin. For 'Chus' in the Hebrew tongue is interpreted 'Ethiopian.' These, rising up once from the river Indus, settled beside Egypt, between the Nile and the Ocean, in the south under the very neighborhood of the sun; of whom there are three peoples: the Hesperi, the Garamantes, and the Indi.

The Hesperi are of the west, the Garamantes of Tripolis, the Indi of the east. The Trochoditae are a nation of the Ethiopians, so named because they are of such swiftness that they overtake wild beasts by the course of their feet. The Pamphagi, these too are in Ethiopia: whose food is whatever can be chewed, and everything that grows by chance; whence also they were named. The Ichthyophagi, because they are strong at hunting in the sea, and are nourished only by fish. These, beyond the Indians, hold the mountainous regions, whom Alexander the Great, when he had subdued them, forbade to feed on fish. The Anthropophagi are a most savage nation situated beneath the region of the Sires, who, because they feed on human flesh, are for this reason named Anthropophagi.

And so, as with these, so also with the other nations through the ages, their names have been changed either by kings, or by places, or by manners, or from any other causes whatsoever, so that the first origin of their name is not apparent because of the antiquity of the times. Now indeed, as for those who are called Antipodes, because they are thought to be contrary to our footprints, so that, as if placed beneath the earth, they tread footprints opposite to our feet, this is by no reasoning to be believed, because neither does the solidity permit it, nor the center of the earth; and this is confirmed by no knowledge of history, but the poets conjecture it as if by reasoning.

They say, moreover, that there were in Greece certain Titans, robust peoples and excelling in strength, whom the fables relate were created by the Earth, angered against the gods, for her own vengeance. Whence also they were called Titans 'APO TES TISEOS,' that is, 'from vengeance,' because they arose armed against the gods as if for the sake of avenging their mother Earth; whom the fables feign to have been overcome in war by Jupiter and destroyed, for which reason they perished by the thunderbolts cast from heaven. III. ON THE TERMS OF KINGDOMS AND WARFARE. A kingdom ('regnum') is named from kings ('reges'). For just as kings are named from ruling ('regere'), so a kingdom from kings.

All the nations had a kingdom, each in its own times, as the Assyrians, the Medes, the Persians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, whose turns the lot of the times so rolled about that one was dissolved by another. Among all the kingdoms of the earth, however, two kingdoms are handed down as more glorious than the rest: first that of the Assyrians, then that of the Romans, as ordered and distinguished among themselves both in time and in place. For just as the former was earlier and this later, so the former arose in the east, this in the west: finally, at the end of the former was straightway the beginning of this one. The other kingdoms and the other kings are held to be, as it were, appendages of these. Kings ('reges') are named from ruling ('regere'). For just as a priest ('sacerdos') from sacrificing, so also a king ('rex') from ruling. But he does not rule ('regit') who does not correct ('corrigit').

Rightly, therefore, by doing rightly the name of king is retained; by sinning it is lost. Whence also among the ancients there was such a proverb: 'You will be king ('rex') if you act rightly ('recte'); if you do not so act, you will not be.' The chief virtues of a king are two: justice and piety. But among kings piety is more praised; for justice by itself is severe. Consuls were named from consulting ('consulere'), just as kings from ruling, just as laws ('leges') from reading ('legere'). For when the Romans would not endure the proud domination of kings, they made for themselves yearly commands and two consuls. For the royal pride was not the benevolence of one consulting, but the arrogance of one lording it. Hence, therefore, they were named consuls, either from consulting for the citizens, or from governing all things by counsel ('consilium').

Yet they chose to change these every single year, so that neither should an insolent one remain long, and a more moderate one should quickly come to aid. And moreover they were two equals, because one administered civil affairs, the other military affairs. They reigned, moreover, for four hundred and sixty-seven years. Proconsuls were substituted for the consuls, and were called proconsuls because they discharged the office of a consul, just as a procurator for a curator, that is, for an administrator. Ex-consuls, however, were so called because they had now gone out from the consulship, or had departed when the year of their turn was completed. Dictators the Romans created for themselves in the fifth year after the kings were expelled, when the son-in-law of Tarquin had gathered a huge army against Rome to avenge the injury of his father-in-law. These exercised a command of five years' duration.

For they were greater in honor than the consuls, who held yearly powers. And they were called dictators, as it were 'chiefs' and 'instructors' ('praeceptores'). Whence also they were named 'masters of the people.' Whence also 'edicts' ('edicta') are so called. The name of the Caesars began from Julius, who, when the civil war had been stirred up, was the first of the Romans to obtain a single supreme rule. He was called Caesar, moreover, because he was brought forth and drawn out from the cut ('caeso') womb of his dead mother, or because he was born with a head of hair ('caesaries'). From whom also the succeeding emperors were called Caesars, because they were long-haired ('comati'). For those who were taken out by the cutting of the womb were called Caesones and Caesares. He was called Julius, moreover, because he derived his origin from Iulus the son of Aeneas, as Virgil confirms (Aeneid 1.288): 'Julius, a name sent down from great Iulus.'

The name of emperors ('imperatores'), moreover, among the Romans belonged formerly only to those with whom the supreme command of military affairs resided, and therefore they were called emperors from commanding ('imperando') the army: but since for a long time the generals bore the imperial titles, the Senate decreed that this name should belong only to Augustus Caesar, and that by it he should be distinguished from the other kings of the nations; which the succeeding Caesars have usurped up to now. For it usually happens that the rest also possess the name of the first king, just as among the Albans, from the name of Silvius, all the kings of the Albans were called Silvii; just as among the Persians the Arsacidae, among the Egyptians the Ptolemies, among the Athenians the Cecropidae. Augustus, therefore, is among the Romans a name of empire, because they once increased ('augerent') the commonwealth by amplifying it.

This name the Senate first bestowed on Octavius Caesar, so that, because he had enlarged the lands, he might be consecrated by the very name and title. But while the same Octavian was now called Caesar and emperor, or Augustus, afterward, while he was watching the games, and it had been proclaimed to him by the people that he should also be called 'Lord' ('Dominus'), immediately, with hand and averted countenance, he repressed the unseemly flatteries and, as a man, declined the appellation of 'Lord'; and on the following day he rebuked the whole people with a most weighty edict, and thereafter did not permit himself to be called 'Lord' even by his own children. He was, moreover, the son of Atia, who was born of the sister of Julius Caesar. Kings, moreover, for this reason are called among the Greeks 'BASILEIS,' because, like bases, they support the people.

Whence also bases have crowns. For the more anyone is set in a higher place, the more heavily is he burdened with the weight of labors. Tyrants are so called in Greek. In Latin the same are also kings. For among the ancients there was no distinction between a king and a tyrant, as (Virgil, Aeneid 7.266): 'Part of the peace for me shall be to have touched the right hand of the tyrant.' For strong kings were called tyrants. For 'tiro' means strong. Concerning such the Lord speaks, saying (Proverbs 8.15): 'Through me kings reign, and tyrants hold the earth through me.' Now afterward it came into use that the worst and most wicked kings should be called tyrants, exercising the lust of a wanton domination and a most cruel dominion over the peoples.

'Prince' ('princeps') signifies a rank both of dignity and of order, as is that Virgilian passage (Aeneid 9.535): 'Prince Turnus hurled the blazing torch,' for 'first' ('primus'). It is called 'prince,' moreover, from the meaning of taking ('capere'), because he takes first ('primus capiat'), just as 'municeps' from the fact that he takes offices ('munia capiat'). A 'leader' ('dux') is so called because he is the leader ('ductor') of the army. But not immediately can whoever are princes or leaders also be called kings. In war, however, it is better to be named 'leader' than 'king.' For this name expresses one leading in battle. Whence also Virgil (Aeneid 10.370): 'of leader Evander.' Sallust (Histories 4, fragment 7 M.):

'The more eagerly did each show himself brave before the face of the leader.' He did not say 'before the face of the consul.' Monarchs ('monarchae') are those who possess a sole rule, such as was Alexander among the Greeks, and Julius among the Romans. Hence also it is called 'monarchy' ('monarchia'). For 'MONAS' is singularity by the Greek name, 'ARCHE' is rule. Tetrarchs ('tetrarchae') are those holding a fourth part of a kingdom: for 'TETTARA' means four; such as was Philip in Judaea. Patricians ('patricii') were so named for this reason: because, just as fathers provide for their sons, so they provide for the commonwealth. Prefects ('praefecti') are so called because they preside ('praesint') with praetorian power. Praetors are the same as the prefects, as it were 'those set before' ('praepositores'). Governors ('praesides'), however, are so called who hold the guardianship of some place in the manner of a garrison ('praesidialiter').

Tribunes ('tribuni') were so named because they assign ('tribuunt') rights to the soldiers or to the plebs. Chiliarchs ('chiliarchae') are those who preside over a thousand, whom we call 'millenarii'; and it is a Greek name. Centurions ('centuriones') are so called because they preside over a hundred soldiers; just as the 'quinquagenarii,' because they are at the head of fifty soldiers; just as the 'decani,' from the fact that they are set over ten soldiers. A soldier ('miles') is so called because there were formerly a thousand ('mille') in one number, or because one is chosen out of a thousand. Romulus, moreover, was the first to take soldiers from the people and to name them. But Liber first taught the order of warfare. A soldier is called either 'ordinary' or 'extraordinary.' He is ordinary who serves through the ranks in order, and has not yet attained any grade of honor.

For he is a common soldier, that is, of lowly service. The extraordinary, however, is he who on account of valor is promoted out of the ranks. 'Emeriti' are called veterans discharged from service, who are no longer in the practice of battle; and because to serve as a soldier is said 'to earn' ('mereri'), namely from the pay ('stipendia') which they earn. The same are also called veterans, because they are no longer in the practice of battle, but after many labors of warfare they obtain the boon of rest. Equestrian soldiers are so called because they sit on a horse ('equus'). Likewise that man serves in the equestrian order. 'Tirones' are called strong youths who are enlisted for military service and are fit for bearing arms. For these are judged not only by the mere declaration of their birth, but by the appearance and vigor of their body.

Whence also they were called 'tirones'; and before they have been proved by the oath, they are not soldiers. It was, moreover, the custom of the Roman militia to exercise the first youths in arms. For at the sixteenth year the recruits served as soldiers, in which alone they also acted under guardians, concerning whom Virgil (Aeneid 7.162): 'And youth in its first bloom.' It is established, indeed, that slaves never served as soldiers, unless slavery had been laid aside, except in the time of Hannibal, when after the battle of Cannae the Romans were in such great necessity that not even the means of freeing the slaves was available. Deserters ('desertores') were so called because, having abandoned ('desertis') their military duties, they wander about. These are forbidden to give their name to other divisions of the army; but if they have not incurred a fault of great length of time, they are beaten and restored to their own divisions.

But those too who abandon the army and go over to the enemy are themselves called deserters (desertores). Soldiers are called 'enrolled' (conscripti) because they are entered on the rolls by the one who is to lead them, just as men are called 'transferred' (transcripti) when they pass from one legion to another; and they are called transcripti because they submit their names to be transcribed. They are called 'options' (obtiones) because they are chosen; for 'to opt' (optare) is to choose, as in that verse (Virgil, Aeneid 3.109): 'And he opted a place for his kingdom,' that is, he chose it. They are called 'watchmen' (excubitores) for this reason, that they always keep watch (excubias). For they are drawn from the number of the soldiers and keep watch in the porticoes for the guarding of the king. Now 'watches' (excubiae) are by day, 'vigils' (vigiliae) by night; whence also the 'sentinels' (vigiles). Among the Romans the 'skirmishers' (velites) were a kind of soldiery, named from their darting about (volitando).

For young men chosen for their agility, with their own weapons, used to sit behind the backs of the cavalry, and as soon as they came upon the enemy they leapt down from the horses, and immediately as foot-soldiers themselves — while on the other side the cavalry who had carried them fought on — they threw the enemy into confusion. It was therefore by these skirmishers that the elephants of Hannibal were once driven back, and when they could no longer be controlled by their own men, they were killed by a carpenter's chisel driven between their ears. A camp (castra) is where a soldier has taken his stand. It is called castra as though 'chaste' (casta), or because there lust was 'gelded' (castraretur); for a woman was never present there. And 'soldiery' (militia) is named from the soldiers (milites); or from 'many' (multis), as though multitia, that is, the affair of many; or from the mass (moles) of matters, as though moletia.

A legion (legio) is a body of six thousand armed men, named from being selected (electo), as though 'the chosen' (lecti), that is, chosen for arms. Properly speaking, the Macedonians' formation is called a phalanx, the Gauls' a horde (caterva), and ours a legion. A legion has sixty centuries, thirty maniples, twelve cohorts, two hundred squadrons. A century (centuria) is a part of the army divided into groups of a hundred soldiers; whence also those who command them are called centurions (centuriones). The 'sub-centuried' (subcenturiati) are not those in the first, but those in the second century, as it were under the first century; yet they too are arrayed and posted on the lookout in battle, so that if the first line fails, these — whom we said were beneath them — come to the aid of the first when it is hard-pressed. Whence also one who lies in ambush is called subcenturiatus, as though equipped with cunning arms.

A maniple (manipulus) is a body of two hundred soldiers. Soldiers were called 'maniple-men' (manipuli) either because they used to begin battle first hand-to-hand (manu), or because, before there were standards, they made for themselves maniples, that is, little bundles (fasciculos) of straw or of some plant, to serve as standards; from which standard the maniple-soldiers took their name. Of these Lucan says (1.296): 'Straightway he summons the armed maniples to the standards.' A squadron (turma) is thirty horsemen; for the Roman cavalry in a single tribe numbered three hundred. From each of the ten centuries ten were assigned, and they made up a squadron. A cohort (cohors) has five hundred soldiers. There are three kinds of military service: the oath (sacramentum), the summons (evocatio), and the conspiration (coniuratio).

The oath (sacramentum), in which, after being chosen, each soldier swears that he will not withdraw from military service except after completing his stipends, that is, his terms of service; and these are they who hold full service, for they are bound for twenty-five years. The summons (evocatio), when for a sudden war not only the soldier but the rest as well are called out; whence too the consul used to say: 'Let him who wishes the commonwealth to be safe follow me.' The conspiration (coniuratio), which arises in an uproar, when a danger near to the city does not permit each man to be sworn in individually, but a multitude is suddenly gathered and is fused together in tumultuous wrath; this is also called a tumult (tumultuatio). Now in the battle-line these are more or less the formations: the army (exercitus), the fleet (classis), the knot (nodus), the wedge (cuneus), the wings (alae), the horns (cornua), the column (agmen);

which borrow their forms and names from the very things from which they are transferred. The battle-line (acies) is so called because it is armed with iron and with the edge (acumen) of swords. An army (exercitus) is a multitude of one kind, named from the training (exercitatione) of war. A wedge (cuneus) is a body of soldiers gathered into one; whence, because it comes together into one, the very coming-together into one is named cuneus, as it were couneus, from the fact that all are driven (coguntur) into one. Divisions (classes) are so called because of the dividing of the army, which were afterward called maniples; whence also Virgil says (Aeneid 2.30): 'Here was the place for the divisions, here the battle-lines used to contend.' Later on the trumpet-signals of ships were also called classica. A knot (nodus) is properly a dense multitude of foot-soldiers, just as a squadron (turma) is of horsemen. And it is called a knot from its difficulty, because it can scarcely be untied.

The wings (alae) in an army are said to be thirty horsemen. And the horsemen are called 'wings' for this reason, because they cover the foot-soldiers in the manner of wings (alarum vice). The horns (cornua) are the name for the extremity of the army, because it is bent inward. It is called a column (agmen) when the army is on the march, named from 'driving on' (agendo), that is, from going. Plautus says (Mostellaria 562): 'Where are you driving yourself (agis)?' For it is the army itself walking. For it is called agmen because it is drawn out at length, such as it usually is when the army advances out of the gates. Whatever else it may be is so called by misuse. IV. ON CITIZENS. Since something has been said in part about the terms for commands and military service, we next add briefly the names of citizens. They are called 'citizens' (cives) because, coming together into one, they live so that life may be both more ornate and safer.

A house (domus) is the dwelling-place of a single family, just as a city (urbs) is of a single people, and the world (orbis) is the abode of the whole human race. Now the household (domus) comprises kind, family, or the union of husband and wife. It begins from two, and the word is Greek. For a family (familia) consists of children begotten from free persons under lawful conditions, and it is named from 'thigh' (femur). Kind (genus) is named from begetting and generating, or from the marking-off of certain descendants, as are the nations (nationes), which, bounded by their own kinships, are called peoples (gentes). A people (populus) is a body of a human multitude, associated by common agreement in law and by a harmonious sharing of interests. Now a people differs from the commons (plebs) in that a people is the whole body of citizens, including the elders of the state.

[The commons (plebs), however, is the rest of the common folk without the elders of the state.] Therefore the people is the whole state, but the common folk are the commons (plebs). The commons is so called from plurality (pluralitate); for the number of the lesser is greater than that of the elders. Now the people is in Greek called *sympheteros*, that is *systasis* (a combination); and hence the word 'people' (populus). In Greek the people is called *laos*, from stones (*lapides*). The common folk (vulgus) is a multitude dwelling here and there, as though each one wherever (quo vult) he wishes. Tribes (tribus) are so called as curiae, that is, distinct assemblies of the peoples, and they were named tribus from the fact that in the beginning the Romans were divided by Romulus into three parts: into senators, soldiers, and commoners. Yet these tribes, now multiplied, retain their ancient name. To the senate (senatus) its age gave the name, because they were elders (seniores).

Others take it that senators (senatores) are so called from 'permitting' (sinendo), for they used to grant the power of acting. The senate's decree (senatus consultum) is named from 'consulting' (consulendo) and deliberating, because it is so made that it may take counsel and be unable to do harm. The fathers (patres), as Sallust says (Catiline 6), were named from a likeness to care (cura); for just as fathers nourish their own sons, so they nourished the commonwealth. They are called 'enrolled fathers' (patres conscripti) because, when Romulus had chosen ten curiae of senators, he entered their names on golden tablets in the presence of the people, and thence they were called enrolled fathers. Senators of the first order are called 'illustrious' (illustres), those of the second 'respectable' (spectabiles), those of the third 'most distinguished' (clarissimi). There is no fourth rank below these.

But although a man might be of senatorial origin, until the lawful years he remained a Roman knight (eques); then he received the honor of senatorial dignity. Among the ancient Romans there were censors (censores); for 'censor' is the name of a judicial dignity, since 'to assess' (censere) is to judge. Likewise censors are judges of patrimonies, named from the assessment (censu) of bronze money. Judges (iudices) are so called as those 'declaring the law' (ius dicentes) to the people, or because they debate according to law (iure). Now to argue according to law is to judge justly. But he is no judge if there is no justice in him. Governors (praesides) are the rulers of a province, so called because they preside (praesunt). Praetors are, as it were, the instructors (praeceptores) and chief men of the state. Likewise quaestors are, as it were, 'inquirers' (quaesitores), because they preside over inquiries (quaestionibus); for counsel and the cause rest with them.

The nobles (proceres) are the chief men of the state, as it were 'those who go before' (procedes), because they precede all others in honor. Whence also the heads of beams (capita trabium), which project beyond the walls, are called proceres, because they go forward first. Hence the term was transferred to the foremost men (primores), because they stand out from the rest of the multitude. Tribunes (tribuni) are so called because they bestow (tribuunt) upon the commons either rights or aid. They were established in the sixth year after the kings were driven out. For when the commons were being oppressed by the senate and the consuls, then the commons itself created for itself tribunes as its own judges and defenders, to safeguard their liberty and to defend them against the injustice of the nobility. Whence also they were called defenders (defensores), because they defend the commons entrusted to them against the insolence of the wicked.

But on the contrary, some now exist as overthrowers (eversores), not defenders. Accountants (numerarii) are so called because they bring public coin into the treasuries (aerariis). The 'discharged' (functi) are so named from the fact that they have discharged (fungantur) some office and honor. Hence too we call the dead 'defunct' (defuncti), because they have completed the duties of life; for they now do nothing. Townsmen (municipes) are those born in the same township (municipium), named from the duty of offices (munerum), because they receive public duties (munia); for munia are offices. Whence also those who bear no office are called 'exempt' (immunes). Municipal magistrates are native citizens bearing office in their locality. Decurions (decuriones) are so called because they are of the order (ordo) of the curia; for they administer the office of the curia. Hence he is no decurion who has not paid in his sum or shared in the curia. Curials (curiales) are the same as decurions.

And they are called curials because they procure and carry out the civic duties. The 'principals' (principales), 'magistrates' (magistrati), and 'duumvirs' (duumvirales) are the ranks of the curial offices. They are called principals because they are first (primi) among the magistrates. The magistrates are so called because they are greater (maiores) than the remaining offices. The duumvirs [are so called because they are two men (duo viri) governing]. A notary (tabellio) is so named because he is the carrier of tablets (tabellarum). He is the same as a scrivener (exceptor), the same also as a public scribe (scriba publicus), because he writes only those things which are made public in the records. Garrison-troops (burgarii) are named from strongholds (burgi), because they commonly call burgi the frequent dwellings set up along the frontiers. Whence too the name of the Burgundian people clung to them, whom the Romans, when Germany had once been subdued, distributed among the camps, and thus they took their name from the places.

They are called 'guild-men' (collegiati) because from their guild (collegium) and its custodies are appointed those who have committed some crime; for it is a most sordid class of men, begotten of an uncertain father. Private persons (privati) are those apart from public offices; for it is a name opposed to one holding a magistracy, and they are called private because they are released from the offices of the curia. Hirelings (mercennarii) are those who serve for a wage received. They are the same as 'barons' (barones) by a Greek name, because they are strong (fortes) in labors; for barus in Greek means 'heavy' (gravis), which is 'strong.' Its opposite is 'light' (levis), that is, 'weak' (infirmus). Tax-farmers (publicani) is the name for the lessees of the fiscal or public revenues, or those who exact the public taxes, or those who pursue gains through the business of the age; and thence they got their name.

A bailiff (vilicus) is properly the manager of a country estate (villa); whence the bailiff took his name from the villa. But sometimes 'bailiff' signifies not the management of the estate, but the stewardship of the whole household, as Tully (Cicero) explains — that is, the steward of all possessions and estates. 'Agents' (actores) are the same as 'stewards' (curatores), named from acting (agendo) and caring (curando). 'Procurators' (procuratores), moreover, are so called because they discharge the office in place of a steward (vice curatoris), as it were 'for the stewards,' just as a proconsul acts for a consul. Coloni (settler-tenants) are cultivators who are newcomers, named from the cultivation (cultura) of the field. For they are those who, coming from elsewhere and cultivating a rented field belonging to another, owe an obligation to the native soil on account of the cultivation of the field, under the dominion of the possessor, because the land has been let to them. Now coloni are spoken of in four ways.

For coloni are either Roman, or Latin coloni, or auxiliary coloni, or coloni of a private estate. 'Lodgers' (inquilini) are so called as those who dwell in another's property (incolentes aliena); for they have no dwelling of their own, but inhabit on another's land. Now there is a difference between a lodger (inquilinus) and a newcomer (advena). For lodgers are those who move away and do not remain permanently. But newcomers or immigrant residents are considered to remain; and hence 'residents' (incolae), because they are now inhabitants, from dwelling (incolendo). The native-born (indigenae) are begotten thence and born in the very place where they dwell. But 'resident' (incola) indicates not a native but a newcomer. Foreigners (peregrini) are so called because their parents, from whom they are sprung, are unknown; for they are from a distant region. Those who dwelt at Rome were called 'city-dwellers' (urbani).

But those in other places are called 'townsmen' (oppidani); for Rome alone is 'the City' (urbs), the rest are 'towns' (oppida). Household servants (famuli) are sprung from the family proper to the slaves. Now slaves (servi) drew their name from this, that those who by the right of war could be slain by the victors, when they were 'preserved' (servabantur), became slaves (servi) — that is, called 'slaves' from being preserved (servando). Maid-servants (ancillae) are named from support (sustentaculum); for ancon in Greek means 'elbow' (cubitus), whence too we speak of the 'elbow-bracket' (ancon). A chattel (mancipium) is whatever can be taken and put under the hand (manu capi), such as a man, a horse, a sheep; for these animals are held to be chattel as soon as they are born. For those things too which are in the number of wild beasts then seem to be chattel, when they have begun to be caught or tamed. The freeborn (ingenui) are so called because they have liberty in their descent (in genere), not by an act (in facto) as the freedmen (liberti) do.

Whence too the Greeks call them *eugeneis*, because they are of good stock (boni generis). A freedman (libertus) is so named as though 'freed' (liberatus); for he was formerly bound to the yoke of slavery. Among the ancients the sons of freedmen were called 'freedmen's sons' (libertini), as though 'born of freedmen.' But now a libertinus is either one made so by a freedman, or one possessed. One who is 'sent forth by hand' (manumissus) is so called as though 'released by the hand' (manu emissus). For among the ancients, whenever they freed by hand (manu mittebant), they turned the men about after striking them with a slap (alapa) and confirmed them as free; whence too they were called manumissi, because they were sent forth by the hand (manu). The 'surrendered' (dediticii) were first named from surrender (deditio); for surrender is spoken of when enemies, defeated or about to be defeated, hand themselves over to the victors — and this was the origin of the name for them.

For once, when slaves had taken up arms and fought against the Roman people, they were defeated and surrendered themselves, and being seized were subjected to various indignities. Some of these, afterward freed by their masters, on account of the marks of their punishments which they had manifestly endured, did not attain to the dignity of Roman citizens. The Latini used to be made among the Latins before Rome was founded, taking their liberty never by testament but by letter (epistola). Hence, because they were not freed by testament, they could neither take anything by testament nor make their own heirs; afterward, under the consuls, they were made Roman citizens by testaments in the city of Rome. And they were called Roman citizens because, being made free by testament, they are enrolled into the number of Roman citizens.