Etymologies & Works 5

I. ON THE AUTHORS OF LAWS. Moses, of the Hebrew nation, was the first of all to set forth divine laws in sacred writings. Phoroneus the king first established laws and courts for the Greeks. Mercurius Trismegistus first delivered laws to the Egyptians. Solon first gave laws to the Athenians. Lycurgus first framed statutes for the Lacedaemonians by the authority of Apollo. Numa Pompilius, who succeeded Romulus in the kingdom, first issued laws for the Romans; then, when the people could not bear the seditious magistrates, he created the Decemviri to write laws, who set forth in twelve tables the laws translated from the books of Solon into the Latin tongue. Now these were they:

Appius Claudius, Genucius, Veterius, Iulius, Manlius, Sulpicius, Sextius, Curatius, Romilius, Postumius. These Decemviri were chosen to draw up the laws. As for gathering the laws into books, the consul Pompey first wished to undertake it, but did not persevere through fear of detractors. Then Caesar began to do it, but was slain before he could. Little by little, however, the ancient laws fell into disuse through age and neglect; and although there is now no use of them, yet a knowledge of them seems necessary. New laws began under Constantine Caesar and the others who succeeded, and they were intermixed and disordered.

Afterwards Theodosius the younger, the Augustus, in the likeness of the Gregorian and Hermogenian codices, arranged a codex made of the constitutions from the times of Constantine, under the proper title of each emperor, which he called the Theodosian after his own name. II. ON DIVINE AND HUMAN LAWS. Now all laws are either divine or human. Divine laws rest upon nature, human laws upon customs; and therefore these differ, since different things please different nations. Fas is divine law, ius is human law. To pass through another's field is fas (right by divine law), but not ius (right by human law). III. HOW LAW (IUS), STATUTES (LEGES), AND CUSTOMS DIFFER FROM ONE ANOTHER. Ius is the general name, but a statute (lex) is a species of ius. Ius is so called because it is just (iustum). Now all law consists of statutes and customs.

A statute (lex) is a written enactment. Custom (mos) is a usage proved by age, or an unwritten law. For a statute is named from 'reading' (legere), because it is written. But custom is a long-standing usage, drawn likewise from customs (mores). Now custom (consuetudo) is a certain law established by usages, which is received in place of a statute when a statute is lacking; nor does it matter whether it rests upon writing or upon reason, since reason also commends a statute. Furthermore, if a statute consists in reason, then everything will already be a statute that has consisted in reason, provided that it accords with religion, agrees with discipline, and is profitable for salvation. Now it is called custom (consuetudo) because it is in common (communis) use. IV. WHAT NATURAL LAW IS. Now law is either natural, or civil, or of the nations.

Natural law is common to all nations, and is held everywhere by the instinct of nature, not by any enactment: such as the joining of man and woman, the succession and rearing of children, the common possession of all things, the one liberty of all, and the acquisition of those things that are taken from the sky, the earth, and the sea. Likewise the restoration of a thing deposited or of money entrusted, and the repelling of violence by force. For this, or whatever is like this, is never unjust, but is held to be natural and equitable. V. WHAT CIVIL LAW IS. Civil law is that which each people or state establishes as proper to itself, for a human or divine cause. VI. WHAT THE LAW OF NATIONS IS.

The law of nations concerns the occupation of settlements, building, fortification, wars, captivities, servitudes, rights of return (postliminia), treaties of peace, truces, the religious inviolability of ambassadors, and the prohibition of marriages with foreigners. And it is called the law of nations (ius gentium) because nearly all nations (gentes) use that law. VII. WHAT MILITARY LAW IS. Military law is the formal procedure of waging war, the binding of making a treaty, the advance against the enemy or engagement at a given signal; likewise the retreat at a given signal; likewise the discipline of military disgrace if a post is deserted; likewise the measure of pay, the grades of rank, the honour of rewards, as when a crown or torque is bestowed; likewise the apportioning of booty, and its just division according to the qualities of persons and their labour; likewise the leader's portion. VIII.

WHAT PUBLIC LAW IS. Public law is concerned with sacred rites, with priests, and with magistrates. IX. WHAT THE LAW OF THE QUIRITES IS. The law of the Quirites is proper to the Romans, by which none are bound except the Quirites, that is, the Romans, as concerning lawful inheritances, formal acceptances (cretiones), guardianships, and usucapions; which laws are found among no other people, but are proper to the Romans and constituted for them alone. Now the law of the Quirites consists of statutes and plebiscites, of the constitutions of princes and of edicts, or of the responses of the learned. X. WHAT A STATUTE IS. A statute (lex) is an enactment of the people, by which the elders together with the commons have sanctioned something. XI. WHAT THE DECREES OF THE PLEBS ARE. Decrees (scita) are those things which the plebs alone establish;

and they are called scita because the plebs knows (sciat) them, or because it is inquired (sciscitatur) and asked that it be done. XII. WHAT A SENATE-DECREE IS. A senate-decree (senatusconsultum) is that which the senators alone decree by consulting for the peoples. XIII. WHAT A CONSTITUTION AND AN EDICT ARE. A constitution or edict is what a king or emperor establishes or proclaims. XIV. WHAT THE RESPONSES OF THE LEARNED ARE. Responses are those which the jurisconsults are said to give to those consulting them; whence they are called the Responses of Paulus. For there were certain learned men and arbiters of equity who published compiled institutions of civil law, by which they might quiet the suits and contentions of those in dispute. XV. ON CONSULAR AND TRIBUNICIAN LAWS.

Certain laws are also named from those who established them, such as consular, tribunician, Julian, and Cornelian laws. For under Octavian Caesar the substitute consuls Papius and Poppaeus brought forward a law, which is called from their names the Papia Poppaea, containing rewards for fathers for the begetting of children. Under the same emperor also, Falcidius, tribune of the plebs, made a law that no one should bequeath more to strangers by testament than would leave a fourth part remaining to the heirs; from his name the Falcidian Law is named. Aquilius likewise established a law, which to this day is called the Aquilian. XVI. ON THE SATURA LAW. A satura law is one which speaks of several matters at once, named from the abundance of matters and, as it were, from fullness (saturitas);

whence 'to write saturae' is to compose varied poems, like those of Horace, Juvenal, and Persius. A new law (novella). XVII. ON THE RHODIAN LAWS. The Rhodian laws are those of naval commerce, named after the island of Rhodes, on which in antiquity there was a practice of merchants. XVIII. ON PRIVILEGES. Privileges (privilegia) are laws of private persons, as it were private laws; for a privilege is so named because it is brought forward in a private matter (in privato). XIX. WHAT A LAW CAN DO. Now every law either permits something, as: 'Let the brave man seek a reward'; or forbids, as: 'Let it be lawful for no one to seek the marriage of sacred virgins'; or punishes, as: 'Whoever commits murder, let him be punished with death.' For human life is governed by its reward or its penalty. XX. WHY A LAW IS MADE.

Now laws are made so that human boldness may be restrained by fear of them, and that innocence may be safe among the wicked, and that among the impious themselves the power of doing harm may be curbed by the dread of punishment. XXI. WHAT KIND A LAW OUGHT TO BE. A law shall be honourable, just, possible, according to nature, according to the custom of the country, suited to place and time, necessary, useful, and also clear, lest through obscurity it contain anything for entrapment, written with no private advantage, but for the common utility of the citizens. XXII. ON CAUSES (LEGAL ACTIONS). Pragma is a Greek word, which in Latin is called 'cause' (causa); whence pragmatic affairs are so called, and a pleader of causes and affairs is called a pragmaticus. XXIII. ON WITNESSES.

Witnesses [are those by whom the truth is sought in a trial]. Each party binds these to himself by agreements before the trial, lest afterwards anyone be free either to dissemble or to withdraw himself; whence they are also called 'the bound' (alligati). Likewise they are called witnesses (testes) because they are wont to be employed in a testament, just as signatories (signatores) because they seal (signant) a testament. XXIV. ON LEGAL INSTRUMENTS. 'Will' (voluntas) is the general name of all legal instruments; and because such a thing proceeds not by force but by will (voluntas), it received this name. A testament is so called because, unless the testator has died, it can neither be confirmed nor can it be known what is written in it, since it is closed and sealed; and hence it is called a testament (testamentum), because it is not valid except after the testator's tomb (monumentum), whence also the Apostle (Heb.

9.17) says: 'A testament is confirmed among the dead.' Yet in the Holy Scriptures a testament is not called only that which is not valid except when the testators are dead, but they called every pact and covenant a testament. For Laban and Jacob made a testament, which surely would be valid even between the living; and in the Psalms it is read (83.6): 'They have arranged a testament against you,' that is, a pact; and there are countless such instances. The tablets of a testament are so called because, before the use of paper and parchment, not only testaments but also the addresses of letters were written on hewn tablets (tabulae); whence too the carriers of these were called tabellarii. A testament of the civil law is one confirmed by the subscription of five witnesses.

A testament of the praetorian law is one sealed with the seals of seven witnesses: but the former is made among the citizens, hence 'civil'; the latter before the praetors, hence 'of praetorian law.' Now to seal (signare) a testament is to mark it, that is, that what is written may be known (notum). A holograph testament is one wholly written out and subscribed by the hand of its author; whence it took its name, for the Greeks call the whole HOLON, and a letter GRAPHE. An invalid testament is one where he who made the testament has suffered loss of civil status (capitis diminutio), or where it was not made in due form. An undutiful testament (inofficiosum) is one which, with the children disinherited to no purpose and without the duty of natural affection, has been transferred to outside persons.

A testament is called 'broken' (ruptum) for this reason: because, when a posthumous child is born who has been neither expressly disinherited nor instituted as heir, it is broken apart. A 'suppressed' testament is one which, in fraud of the heirs, legatees, or freedmen, has not been openly produced; and even if it is not hidden, yet if it is not produced to the aforesaid persons, it is still deemed to be suppressed. A nuncupation (nuncupatio) is that which the testator recites over the tablets and wax, saying: 'As these things are written on these tablets and wax, so I declare, so I bequeath: and therefore, you citizens of Rome, bear witness for me'; and this is called a nuncupation, for to nuncupate is to name openly and to confirm. The right of children (ius liberorum) is the mutual writing-up of spouses without children, each in place of pledges, for the inheritance of the other.

A codicil, as the ancients say, is without doubt named from the author who instituted this kind of writing. It is a writing requiring no solemnity of words, but only the testator's will expressed by the signification of any sort of writing. By its benefit it is agreed that the wishes of the deceased are provided for, on account of the difficulty of legal words, or certainly on account of the necessity of employing solemnities; so that whoever writes the heading of that same writing calls it a codicil. And just as a codicil stands in place of a testament, so a letter stands in place of a codicil.

Cretio is a fixed number of days within which the instituted heir either enters upon the inheritance, or, when the time of the cretio is finished, is excluded, nor is he any longer free to take up the inheritance. Cretio is so called as though 'decretio,' that is, to decree or to determine; as for instance: 'Let so-and-so be my heir'; and there is added: 'and let him formally accept within so many days.' Now the hundredth day was appointed as the term for entering upon inheritances for which no cretio had been added. A fideicommissum (trust) is so called so that what is entrusted (committitur) by the deceased may be done; for 'faith' (fides) is so named because it is done (fiat); yet this is demanded not in direct words, but in words of entreaty. A pact (pactum) is called a writing agreeing between the parties out of peace (pax), approved by laws and customs;

A 'pact' (pactum) is so called as though made out of 'peace' (pax), from the verb 'to make peace' (paco), whence also 'he has covenanted' (pepigit). Likewise a 'plea' (placitum) is named from 'that which is pleasing' (placeat). Others say that a pact is what a person does willingly, whereas a plea a man is compelled to accept even unwillingly, as when someone is bound to appear in court to answer a charge; no one can call this a pact, but rather a plea. A 'mandate' (mandatum) is so called because in former times, when a matter was entrusted, one party 'gave his hand' (manum dabat) to the other. A thing is 'ratified' (ratum), as it were 'reasonable' (rationabile) and right; whence he who makes a promise says, 'I declare it ratified,' that is, firm and lasting forever. To do a thing 'duly' (rite) is not to do it rightly, but according to custom. Bond (chirographum). Surety (cautio). Buying and selling is the exchange of goods and a contract arising from mutual agreement.

'Buying' (emtio) is so called because a thing passes 'from me to you' (a me tibi); 'selling' (venditio) is as it were 'a taking to market' (venundatio), that is, from the 'market days' (nundinae). A 'donation' (donatio) is the transfer of any thing whatever. They say that a donation is named as it were 'the giving of a gift' (doni actio), and a 'dowry' (dos) as it were 'I likewise give' (do item). For, the donation coming first at a wedding, the dowry follows. For there was an ancient marriage rite in which husband and wife purchased one another mutually, lest the wife should seem a bondservant, as we find in the law. Hence it is that, the husband's gift coming first, the wife's dowry follows. A donation is called 'usufructuary' because the donor still retains from it the use and enjoyment, while the right is reserved to the one to whom the gift is made. A donation is called 'direct' because both by right and by use it passes at once to the other, and nothing thereafter reverts from it to the donor's right.

'Conditions' (condiciones) properly belong to witnesses, and they are called condiciones from 'agreeing together' (condicere), as it were 'joint declarations' (condiciones), because in this matter not one witness alone takes oath, but two or more. For every word stands not in the mouth of one, but of two or three witnesses. Again they are called condiciones because the testimony of the witnesses agrees among itself, as it were 'joint sayings' (condictiones). A 'stipulation' (stipulatio) is a promise or pledge; whence those who make promises are also called 'stipulators' (stipulatores). The stipulation is named from 'straw' (stipula). For the ancients, when they promised each other anything, holding a straw would break it, and by joining it together again would acknowledge their pledges [or because Paulus the jurist called stipulum something firm]. An 'oath' (sacramentum) is the pledge of a solemn undertaking;

and it is called sacramentum because to violate what one promises is an act of treachery. XXV. ON PROPERTY. An 'inheritance' (hereditas) is property that comes to someone at another's death, whether bequeathed by will or retained by possession. It is called hereditas from 'goods entered upon' (res aditae), or from 'bronze money' (aes), because he who possesses a field also pays the tax; hence too 'property' (res). 'Property' (res) is that which stands within our right. 'Rights' (iura) are those things which are justly possessed by us and are not another's. A thing (res) is named from 'holding rightly' (recte habere), a right (ius) from 'possessing justly' (iuste possidere). For that is possessed by right which is possessed justly, and that justly which is possessed well. But what is possessed wrongly is another's. And he possesses wrongly who either misuses his own or seizes what is another's. But he possesses justly who is not ensnared by greed.

But he who is held fast by greed is the possessed, not the possessor. 'Goods' (bona) belong to honorable or noble men, and are called bona for this reason, that they should have no base use, but that men should use them for good ends. A 'peculium' properly belongs to persons of lesser standing or to slaves. For a peculium is what a father or master allows his son or slave to handle as though it were his own. And peculium is named from 'cattle' (pecudes), in which the whole substance of the ancients consisted. 'Possession of goods' (bonorum possessio) is a right of possession, acquired in a fixed order and by a fixed title. An 'intestate inheritance' is one that is not set down in a will, or, if it is set down, has nevertheless in no way been legally entered upon. It is thereupon called 'lapsed' (caduca), because its heirs have 'fallen away' (ceciderunt).

'Estate to be partitioned' (familia herciscunda) is the division of an inheritance among heirs. For herciscunda was among the ancients the term for 'division.' An action 'for dividing common property' (communi dividendo) lies among those who hold a thing in common, an action which, at the request of the parties, orders an arbiter to be appointed by whose judgment the property is divided. The action 'for regulating boundaries' (finium regundorum) is so called because by it the boundaries of both parties are regulated, lest they be obliterated, provided that the dispute does not concern a strip narrower than five feet. A 'lease' (locatio) is a thing given for use with a fixed rent stipulated. A 'hire' (conductio) is a thing received for use with a rent settled. A 'thing lent on credit' (res credita) is one so brought into obligation that from the time the contract was made it is certain that it is owed. 'Interest' (usura) is the increase of a loan, named from the 'use' (usus) of the money lent.

A 'loan for use' (commodatum) is that which is of our own right and is transferred to another temporarily, with a measure of time set for how long it remains with him; whence too it is called commodatum ('with a measure'). A 'precarious tenure' (precarium) is when the creditor, entreated by prayer, permits the debtor to remain in possession of the estate pledged to him and to take its fruits therefrom. And it is called precarium because it is approached by prayer (prece), as though precadium, the letter R being changed for D. A 'loan for consumption' (mutuum) is so named because what is given by me to you 'becomes yours from mine' (ex meo tuum fit). A 'deposit' (depositum) is a pledge entrusted for a time, as though 'placed for long' (diu positum). And someone is seen to make a deposit when, for fear of theft, fire, or shipwreck, he places something with another for safekeeping. But there is a difference in usage of speech between a pledge (pignus) and earnest-money (arra).

For a 'pledge' (pignus) is what is given on account of a thing lent on credit, and when this is repaid, the pledge is at once taken back. But 'earnest-money' (arra) is what, in a contract of good faith for a thing first bought, is given in part, and afterward completed. For earnest-money is to be completed, not taken back; whence he who holds earnest-money does not give it back like a pledge, but looks for the full payment; and arra is named from the 'thing' (res) for which it is handed over. Likewise there is this difference between a pledge, a fiduciary conveyance, and a hypothec. For a pledge is what is bound on account of a thing lent on credit, of which thing the creditor obtains only possession for a time. But the ownership remains with the debtor. A 'fiduciary conveyance' (fiducia) is when some thing, for the sake of receiving a loan of money, is either formally conveyed or ceded before the magistrate.

A 'hypothec' (hypotheca) is when a thing is pledged without the handing over of a pledge, only an agreement or a written surety intervening. A 'moment' (momentum) is named from the brevity of time, so that whatever is claimed back may be restored at once, without harm to the matter, and ought not to be drawn out into any delay; just as there is no interval to a 'moment,' whose span of time is so short that it can in no way be drawn out into any delay. An 'instrument' (instrumentum) is that with which we construct something, such as a knife, a pen, an adze. The 'furnishing' (instructum) is what is accomplished by an instrument, such as a staff, a book, a writing-tablet. 'Use' (usus) is that whereby we make use of a furnished thing, as leaning upon a staff, reading in a book, playing on a tablet; but the very produce of fields, because we use it, is also called 'use.' These are those three things.

'Usufruct' (usus fructus) is so called because its fruit is held by use alone, while the right remains with another. 'Usucaption' (usucapio) is the acquisition of ownership through the continuation of lawful possession, whether for two years or for some other period. 'Mancipation' (mancipatio) is so called because the thing is taken 'by hand' (manu). Whence it is fitting that he who receives by mancipation should grasp the very thing that is given him by mancipation. A 'cession' (cessio) is the yielding of one's own property, as in this expression: 'I cede by right of kinship.' For we say 'to cede' (cedere) as though 'to concede' (concedere), that is, the things that are our own; for what belongs to another we 'restore,' not 'cede.' For to 'cede' is properly said of one who against the truth agrees with another, as Cicero (Pro Ligario 7.22) says:

'He yielded,' he says, 'to the authority of that most distinguished man, or rather he obeyed it.' An 'interdict' (interdictum) is what is pronounced by a judge not permanently, but for the time being, in order to restore the state of affairs, while the presentation of one's action is preserved intact. A 'price' (pretium) is so called because we give it 'first' (prius) so that in return for it we may be entitled to possess the thing we seek. 'Commerce' (commercium) is named from 'wares' (merces), by which name we call goods for sale. Whence a 'market' (mercatus) is called the gathering of many men who are accustomed to sell or buy goods. 'Restitution in full' (integri restitutio) is the repairing of a cause or of a thing. A cause is set right again when it has not been carried through by force of authority. A thing is set right again when it has been taken away and wrested from one by force of authority. XXVI. ON THE CRIMES SET DOWN IN LAW. 'Crime' (crimen) takes its name from 'lacking' (carere):

such as theft, forgery, and the rest, which do not kill but bring infamy. A 'misdeed' (facinus) is named from 'doing' (facere) an evil that harms another. A 'shameful deed' (flagitium) is named from 'craving' (flagitare) the corruption of lust, whereby a man harms himself. These are the two kinds of all sins. 'Force' (vis) is the might of power, by which a cause or a thing is either taken away or wrested. 'Private force' is when someone before trial, with armed men, throws another out of his own property or drives him from it. 'Public force' is when someone kills a citizen appealing before the people or a judge or the king, or tortures, beats, or binds him. 'Fraud' (dolus) is craftiness of mind, from the fact that it 'deceives' (deludat). For it does one thing and pretends another. Petronius judges otherwise, saying: 'What, judges, is fraud?

Surely it is where something has been done that grieves the law. You have fraud; now receive its evil.' 'Calumny' (calumnia) is the wrangling of another's suit, named from 'deceiving' (calvere), that is, tricking. 'Falsehood' (falsitas) is named from 'speaking' (fari) something other than what is true. 'Injury' (iniuria) is injustice. Hence in the comic poets (cf. Plautus, Miles Gloriosus 436) there is: 'You do injury (iniuria's)'; he who dares anything against the order of law. 'Sedition' (seditio) is called a discord of citizens, because some go 'apart' (seorsum) to others. For these especially delight in the disturbance of affairs and in tumult. 'Sacrilege' (sacrilegium) properly is the theft of sacred things. Later this name attached also to the worship of idols. 'Adultery' (adulterium) is the violation of another's marriage, which, because it has defiled 'another's' (alterius) bed, has received the name of adulterium. Debauchery (stuprum).

'Ravishment' (raptus) is properly unlawful intercourse, named from 'corrupting' (corrumpere); whence he who 'gains possession by seizure' (rapto potitur) enjoys debauchery. The word 'homicide' (homicidium) is compounded of 'man' (homo) and 'slaughter' (caedes). For him who had been found to have wrought slaughter upon a man the ancients called a homicide. The action for 'parricide' (parricidium) was granted not only against him who had slain a parent, that is, either father or mother, but also against him who had killed a brother; and it is called parricidium as it were 'the slaughter of a parent' (parentis caedes). A 'capital charge' (internecivum iudicium) was granted against him who had made a false will and on that account had killed a man. Possession of his goods followed for the accuser. And the meaning of internecivum is, as it were, a kind of 'killing' (enectio) of a man. For they used to put the preposition 'inter' for 'e.' Naevius (Tragedies 52):

'to drink up (interbibere) the sea'; and Plautus (fragment 87): 'to wash out (interluere) the sea': that is, to drink dry and to rinse away. 'Theft' (furtum) is the secret handling of another's property, named from 'dark' (furvus), that is, dusky, because it is done in the dark. Theft was among our ancestors a capital crime before the penalty of the fourfold restitution. 'Plundering' (pervasio) is the open seizure of another's property. Theft is committed of those things which can be transferred from place to place; but plundering both of those things that are moved and of those that are immovable. 'Denial' (infitiatio) is the denial of a debt owed, when it is demanded by the creditor. The same is also 'disavowal' (abiuratio), that is, the denial of a thing lent on credit. The action for 'bribery' (ambitus) is against him who, by lavish gifts, obtains and 'canvasses' (ambit) office, and is to lose the dignity which he invades by his gift.

The action for 'embezzlement of public funds' (peculatus) is granted against those who commit fraud against the treasury and divert public money. For peculatus is said to be named from 'money' (pecunia). The theft of public property is not judged in the same way as that of private property. For the former is judged like a sacrilegious man, because he is a thief of sacred things. He is accused of 'extortion' (repetundae) who has taken moneys from allies. In this trial, if the defendant dies beforehand, judgment is rendered against his estate. The action for 'incest' (incestum) is established against consecrated virgins or those near of blood. For those who mingle with such are held 'incestuous' (incesti), that is, 'unchaste' (incasti). By the charge of 'treason' (maiestas) are held those who have injured or violated the royal majesty, or who have betrayed the commonwealth or conspired with the enemy.

An 'expiable offense' (piaculum) is so called for the reason that it can be expiated; for those deeds are 'committed' (commissa) which were to be expiated in whatever manner. XXVII. ON THE PENALTIES ESTABLISHED IN LAWS. 'Evil' (malum) is spoken of in two ways: one, which a man does; the other, which he suffers. What he does is 'sin' (peccatum); what he suffers is 'punishment' (poena). Evil is full when it is both past and impending, so that there is both grief and fear. 'Punishment' (poena) is so called because it 'punishes' (puniat). It is an epithet-noun, and without an addition it does not have a full sense: you add 'penalty of prison,' 'penalty of exile,' 'penalty of death,' and you fill out the sense. 'Capital punishment' (supplicium) is properly said not of one who is punished in any manner whatever, but is so condemned that his goods are consecrated and brought into the public treasury. For 'supplications' (supplicia) used to be called 'offerings' (supplicamenta).

And it is called supplicium because from his condemnation something is offered to God; whence also 'to supplicate' (supplicare). Tullius (Cicero) writes that eight kinds of penalties are contained in the laws: that is, fine, chains, flogging, retaliation, ignominy, exile, servitude, and death. For by these penalties every sin committed is avenged. A 'fine' (damnum) is named from the 'diminution' (diminutio) of property. 'Chains' (vincula) are named from 'binding' (vincire), that is, 'constricting' (artare), because they bind fast and hold; or because they 'bind by force' (vi ligant). 'Fetters' (compedes) are so called because they 'hold the feet' (continent pedes). 'Foot-traps' (peducae) are snares by which the feet are ensnared, named from 'catching the feet' (pedes capiendi). 'Chains' (catenae) are so called because by 'catching' they hold both footprints, lest one advance. Again, catenae, because they hold themselves by catching with very many knots.

'Manacles' (manicae) are bonds by which the hands are caught; though the sleeves of tunics are also called manicae. Sinew-cords (nervi). A 'collar' (boia) is a torque for the condemned, being, as it were, a yoke like that on an ox, of the class of bonds. A 'prison' (carcer), in which the guilty are kept. And it is called carcer because in it men are confined and shut up, as though arcer, from 'shutting off' (arcere). The place in which the guilty are kept we call carcer in the singular number only; but where the four-horse chariots are let out, we call carceres ('starting-gates') in the plural number only. 'Lashes' (verbera) are so called because, when they are wielded, they 'beat the air' (aerem verberant). Hence 'scourges' (flagra) and 'blows' (plagae) and 'whips' (flagella), because with a gust and a crack they resound on the body. For plagae is as it were flagae; but plagae and flagra are of the primary form, whereas flagella are said as a diminutive.

The 'eel-whip' (anguilla) is that with which boys are chastised in schools, commonly called scotica. 'Cudgels' (fustes) are those with which young men are struck for crimes, so called because they 'stand fixed' (praefixi stent) in ditches; countryfolk call them stakes (pali). 'Levers' (vectes) are so called because they are 'carried' (vectentur) by the hands, whereby doors and stones are wrenched loose; but these do not pertain to legal penalties. 'Rods' (virgae) are the tips of the foliage and of trees, so called because they are 'green' (virides), or because they have the 'force' (vis) of 'convicting' (arguere); if such a rod is smooth, it is a virga; but if it be knotty or barbed, it is by the most fitting name a 'scorpion,' because it is driven into the body with an arching wound. 'Blows' (ictus) properly are those of the scourges, named from 'wielding' (agitare). The 'claws' (ungulae) are so called because they 'dig out' (effodiant). These are also called 'lute-strings' (fidiculae), because with them defendants are racked on the wooden horse, that the truth (fides) may be found out.

The 'wooden horse' (eculeus) is so called because it 'stretches out' (extendat). 'Tortures' (tormenta), because by 'twisting' (torquere) they find out the 'mind' (mens). There is also the 'quarry' (latomia), a kind of punishment suited for flogging, invented by Tarquinius Superbus for the punishment of criminals. For he was the first to devise quarries, tortures, cudgels, mines, and exiles, and he himself was the first of the kings to earn exile. 'Retaliation' (talio) is the likeness of vengeance, so that a man may suffer in like manner (taliter) as he has done. For this has been established both by nature and by law, that 'a punishment like the deed should follow the one who inflicts harm.' Whence also is that saying of the law (Matthew 5:38): 'An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.' But talio is applied not only to the requital of injury, but also to the repayment of a benefit. For it is a term common both to injury and to beneficence.

'Ignominy' (ignominium) is so called for the reason that he who is caught in some crime ceases to have the 'name' (nomen) of honor. And it is called ignominium as though 'without a name' (sine nomine), just as 'ignorant' (ignarus) is without 'knowledge' (scientia), and 'ignoble' (ignobilis) without 'nobility' (nobilitas). This too is 'infamy' (infamium), as though 'without good repute' (sine bona fama). And 'repute' (fama) is so called because by 'speaking' (fando), that is, by talking, it spreads abroad, gliding through the channels of tongues and ears. It is a name both for good things and for bad. For sometimes there is a repute of good fortune, as in that phrase, 'illustrious fame,' which is praise; and of bad things, as Virgil (Aeneid 4.174): 'Rumor, than which no other evil is swifter.' But repute has no fixed truth-telling, because it is for the most part a liar, adding much or altering from the truth: it lives only as long as it is not proven.

But once you have proven it, it ceases to exist, and thenceforth the thing is called 'fact,' not 'rumor.' 'Exile' (exilium) is so called as though 'outside the soil' (extra solum). For an 'exile' (exul) is he who is outside the soil. Whence 'the right of return' (postliminium) for those coming back, that is, for those to be led back from exile, who have been cast out wrongfully, that is, outside the threshold (limen) of their fatherland. Exile is divided into the 'relegated' (relegati) and the 'deported' (deportati). The relegated is he whom his goods follow; the deported, he whom they do not follow. 'Proscription' (proscriptio) is the condemnation of exile far off, as though 'a writing at a distance' (porro scriptio). Likewise 'proscribed' (proscriptus), because 'written up openly' (palam scriptus). A 'mine' (metallum) is where exiles are deported to dig out ore and to cut marble into slabs. 'Servitude' (servitus) is named from 'preserving' (servare). For among the ancients those who were preserved from death in war were called 'slaves' (servi).

This alone is the last of all evils, which to free men is heavier than any punishment; for where liberty has perished, there all things have perished together with it. But of deaths there are various forms, among which the cross or gibbet, on which men are hung up to be tortured or to suffer; whence too they take their names. For the gibbet (patibulum) is commonly called the 'fork' (furca), as though 'bearing the head' (ferens caput). For it kills the man hung and strangled upon it; but the penalty of the gibbet is less than that of the cross. For the gibbet kills those hung upon it at once, but the cross tortures long those fastened beneath it; whence also in the Gospel the legs of the robbers were broken, that they might die and be taken down from the wood before the Sabbath, because those hung on the wood could not die quickly. And in the very kind of killing there is a difference.

For it is crueler to be smothered by having one's breath choked in water, to be burned by fire, to be killed by cold and hunger, to be exposed to dogs and wild beasts. For to die by the sword even greater age has chosen. For the sword knows how to end life by a compendious death without any severer torment. The 'sack' (culleum) is a parricidal vessel, named from 'concealing' (occulere), that is, 'shutting up' (claudere). It is a bag made of leather, in which parricides, shut up together with an ape, a cock, and a serpent, are cast headlong into the sea. But the class of all these deaths is called 'punitive execution' (animadversio). For animadversio is when a judge punishes a defendant; and it is called animadvertere, that is, 'to turn the mind thither' (animum illuc advertere), namely to direct it toward punishing the defendant, because he is a judge.

For this reason the Romans used to forbid certain condemned men water and fire, because air and water lie open to all and are given to all; so that those men might not enjoy what by nature has been granted to all. XXVIII. ON THE WORD 'CHRONICLE.' What is called in Greek 'chronica' is in Latin termed a 'series of times,' such as Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, published among the Greeks, and Jerome the presbyter translated into the Latin tongue. For 'chronos' in Greek is rendered 'time' in Latin. XXIX. ON MOMENTS AND HOURS. Time is divided into moments, hours, days, months, years, lustra, ages, and epochs. A 'moment' (momentum) is the least and most minute span of time, named from the 'motion' (motus) of the stars.

For it is the extremity of an hour in brief intervals, when one thing gives way to another and another follows. 'Hour' (hora) is a Greek name, and yet it has a Latin sound. For an hour is the 'end' (finis) of a span of time, just as 'edges' (orae) are the ends of seas, of rivers, of garments. XXX. ON DAYS. A 'day' (dies) is the presence of the sun, or the sun above the earth, just as night is the sun beneath the earth. For, that it be day or night, the cause is either the sun above the earth or beneath it. A 'lawful day' is of twenty-four hours, until, by the revolution of the heaven, day and night complete the spans of their course from the east to another eastern sunrise. But loosely one day is the span from the rising sun to its setting. Now there are two spans of the day, the daytime and the nighttime;

and the 'day' indeed is of twenty-four hours, but the daytime span is of twelve hours. Now the day is named from its better part. Whence it is customary that, without mention of the night, we state the number of days, just as it is also written in the divine law (Genesis 1:5): 'And the evening and the morning were one day.' The day begins, according to the Egyptians, from the setting of the sun; according to the Persians, from the rising of the sun; according to the Athenians, from the sixth hour of the day; according to the Romans, from midnight. Whence too it is then cock-crow (gallicinium), whose voice announces the herald's proclamation of day, when also the midnight breeze arises. Days are named from the gods (dii), whose names the Romans consecrated to certain heavenly bodies.

For the first day they named from the Sun, which is the chief of all the heavenly bodies, just as the same day is the head of all the days. The second from the Moon, which is nearest to the Sun both in splendor and in magnitude, and borrows its light from it. The third from the star of Mars, which is called Vesper. The fourth from the star of Mercury, which some call the 'white circle.' The fifth from the star of Jupiter, which they call Phaethon. The sixth from the star of Venus, which they assert to be Lucifer (the Light-bearer), which among all the stars has the most light. The seventh from the star of Saturn, which, set in the sixth heaven, is said to complete its course in thirty years.

Accordingly, the pagans gave the names of the days from these seven stars, because they supposed something to be effected for them through these same stars, saying that they have from the Sun spirit, from the Moon body, from Mercury intellect and speech, from Venus pleasure, from Mars blood, from Jupiter temperance, from Saturn moisture. Such indeed was the folly of the pagans, who invented for themselves such ridiculous fictions. But among the Hebrews the first day is called 'one of the Sabbath,' which among us is the Lord's Day, which the pagans dedicated to the Sun. The second of the Sabbath is the second feria, which the worldly call the Day of the Moon. The third of the Sabbath is the third feria, which they call the Day of Mars. The fourth of the Sabbath is the fourth feria, which is called the Day of Mercury by the pagans.

The fifth of the Sabbath is the fifth feria, that is, the fifth from the Lord's Day, which among the pagans is called the Day of Jupiter. The sixth of the Sabbath is called the sixth feria, which among those same pagans is named the Day of Venus. But the Sabbath is the seventh day from the Lord's Day, which the pagans dedicated to Saturn and named the Day of Saturn. Now 'Sabbath' is translated from Hebrew into Latin as 'rest,' because God rested on it from all his works. But it is better that in the names of the days the ecclesiastical manner of speaking should proceed from a Christian mouth. Yet if perchance habit should draw someone so that from his mouth issues what his heart disapproves, let him understand that all those from whose names these days have been called were men:

and on account of certain mortal benefits, because they had great power and stood out in this world, divine honors were bestowed on them by their admirers, both in the days and in the stars; but first the stars were named from the names of men, and from the stars the days were named. Now 'holidays' (feriae) are named from 'speaking' (fari), because on them there is for us a time of 'utterance' (dictio), that is, of speaking in a divine or human office. But of these, festal days were instituted for the sake of men, and 'feriated' days for the divine rites. There are three parts of the day: morning, midday, and evening. 'Morning' (mane) is the mature and full light, and no longer twilight. And mane is named from 'good' (manum); for the ancients used to call the good 'manum.' For what is better than light?

Others think that 'mane' is named from the Manes (spirits of the dead), whose passage is from the moon to the earth. Others suppose it is from the air, because it is 'rare' (manus), that is, thin and transparent. 'Midday' (meridies) is so called as though 'mid-day' (medidies), that is, the middle of the day; or because then the day is purer. For 'pure wine' (merum) is called 'unmixed.' For in the whole day nothing is brighter than midday, when the sun glows red from the middle of the sky and lights up the whole world with equal brightness. 'Evening' (suprema) is the last part of the day, when the sun turns its course toward setting: so called because it 'is left over' (superest) unto the final part of the day. 'Late' (serum) is named from the closed bars (serae), when night is now coming, so that each may be safer in sleep. 'Today' (hodie) is as though 'on this day' (hoc die); and 'daily' (quotidie), not 'cotidie,' so that it be 'on however many days' (quot diebus). 'Tomorrow' (cras) is what comes afterward. 'Yesterday' (hesternum) is the day before;

and 'yesterday' (hesternum) is so called from the fact that that day is now foreign (extraneus) to us and, by passing, is estranged (alienus). 'The day before' (pridie) is as though 'on the prior day' (priori die). 'The day after tomorrow' (perendie), that is, 'through the day beyond' (per ante diem), or 'in advance' (in antecessum), that is, 'earlier' (prius). XXXI. ON NIGHT. 'Night' (nox) is named from 'harming' (nocere), because it 'harms the eyes' (oculis noceat). It therefore has the light of the moon and stars, lest it should be unseemly, and that it might console all who labor by night, and that for certain living creatures, which cannot bear the light of the sun, it might be tempered to their sufficiency. Now the alternation of night and day was made for the sake of the interchange of sleeping and waking, and that the rest of night might temper the toil of the day's labor.

That night comes to be is either because the sun is wearied by its long journey, and when it reaches the farthest span of the sky, it grows faint and, wasted away, breathes out its fires; or because it is driven beneath the earth by the same force with which it carried its light above the earth, and thus the shadow of the earth makes night. Whence too Virgil (Aeneid 2.250): 'Night rushes from the Ocean, wrapping in its great shadow both earth and sky.' There are seven parts of the night, that is: evening (vesper), twilight (crepusculum), the hush of night (conticinium), the dead of night (intempestum), cock-crow (gallicinium), the morning watch (matutinum), and daybreak (diluculum). 'Evening' (vesperum) is named from the western star, which follows the setting sun and precedes the ensuing darkness. Of it Virgil (Aeneid 1.374): 'Before the day would end, with Olympus shut, the evening-star composes it.' 'Darkness' (tenebrae) is so called because it 'holds the shadows' (teneant umbras). 'Twilight' (crepusculum) is a doubtful light.

For we call 'creperum' something doubtful, that is, between light and darkness. The 'hush of night' (conticinium) is when all are silent. For 'to fall silent' (conticescere) is 'to be silent' (silere). The 'dead of night' (intempestum) is the middle and inactive time of night, when nothing can be done and all things are quiet in sleep. For time in itself is not perceived except through human acts. But the middle of the night lacks activity. Therefore it is 'untimely' (intempesta), 'inactive,' as though 'without time' (sine tempore), that is, without the activity through which time is discerned; whence the saying: 'You have come at an untimely hour (intempestive).' Therefore it is called intempesta because it lacks 'time' (tempus), that is, activity. 'Cock-crow' (gallicinium) is named on account of the cocks, the heralds of the light. The 'morning watch' (matutinum) is between the departure of darkness and the coming of dawn; and it is called matutinum because this time is at the beginning of morning (mane).

'Daybreak' (diluculum) is as it were the small light of day already beginning. This is also the 'dawn' (aurora), which precedes the sun. Now dawn is the beginning of the brightening day and the first splendor of the air, which in Greek is called 'Eos'; and this we by derivation call 'aurora,' as though 'eorora.' Whence is that verse (Virgil, Aeneid 2.417): 'and Eurus rejoicing in his eastern (Eoos) steeds'; and (Aeneid 1.489): 'and the eastern (Eoas) battle-lines.' XXXII. ON THE WEEK. The 'week' (hebdomada) is named from the number of the seven days, by whose repetition both months and years and ages are accomplished; for 'hepta' the Greeks call seven. This we call 'septimana,' as though 'seven lights.' For the morning is light. But the eighth day is the same as the first, to which one returns and from which again the series of the week takes its beginning. XXXIII. ON MONTHS.

'Month' (mensis) is a Greek name derived from the name of the moon. For the moon is called 'mene' in the Greek tongue; whence too among the Hebrews the lawful months are reckoned not from the sun's circuit, but from the course of the moon, that is, from new moon to new moon. But the Egyptians first, on account of the swifter course of the moon, and lest an error of reckoning should arise from its swiftness, devised the day of the month from the sun's course; since the slower motion of the sun could more easily be comprehended. The month of January is named from Janus, whose it was, being consecrated to him by the pagans; or because it is the boundary (limes) and gate (ianua) of the year. Whence too the same Janus is depicted two-faced, that the entrance and exit of the year might be shown. February is named from Februus, that is, Pluto, to whom sacrifice was made in that month.

For the Romans consecrated January to the gods above, and February to the Manes (the gods of the dead). Therefore February is named from Februus, that is, Pluto, not from 'fever' (febris), that is, sickness. March is named on account of Mars, the author of the Roman race; or because at that time all living things are driven toward the male and toward the pleasure of coupling. The same is also called the month of new things, because the beginning of the year is the month of March. It is likewise the new spring, from the tokens namely of the buds, because in it, as the new fruits grow green, the passing away of those gone by is attested. April is named for Venus, as it were 'Aphros'; for in Greek Venus is called 'Aphrodite'; or because in this month all things open (aperiuntur) into flower, as though 'Aperilis.' May is named from Maia, the mother of Mercury;

or from those greater in birth (maiores natu), who were the leaders of the commonwealth. For the Romans consecrated this month to the elders, but the following one to the younger. Whence too it is called June (Iunius). For formerly the people had been divided into centuries of the elders (seniores) and of the younger (iuniores). But July and August were named from the honors of men, of the Caesars Julius and Augustus. For before they were called Quintilis and Sextilis: Quintilis, because it was the fifth (quintus) from March, which the Romans attest to be the chief of the year; Sextilis likewise, because it was the sixth (sextus). September has its name from the number and from rain (imber), because it is the seventh (septimus) from March and has rains. Thus also October, November, and December received their names from the number and from rains;

December closes this running count of numbers, for the reason that the number ten shuts up the numbers that go before it. As for the Kalends, Nones, and Ides, the Romans instituted them on account of festal days, or on account of the duties of the magistrates; for on these days people used to gather together in the cities. Some, however, think that the Kalends are so named from 'colere' (to worship, to tend). For among the ancients the beginnings of all the months were kept with reverence, just as they were among the Hebrews. As for the Ides, most of the Latins suppose the word to come from 'edere' (to eat), because among the ancients these days were days of feasting. The Nones are named from the market-days (nundinae); for the nundinae are public assemblies or markets. XXXIV. ON THE SOLSTICES AND EQUINOXES. The solstice is so called as it were 'the standing of the sun' (solis statio), because at that time, while the sun stands still, the days or the nights grow longer.

The equinox is so called because at that time the day and the night stand in an equal span of hours. Now there are two solstices: one is the summer solstice, on the eighth day before the Kalends of July, from which time the sun begins to return toward the lower circles; the other is the winter solstice, on the eighth day before the Kalends of January, at which time the sun begins to seek the higher circles. Hence the day of the winter solstice is found to be the shortest, just as that of the summer solstice is the longest. Likewise there are two equinoxes, one vernal and the other autumnal, which the Greeks call 'isemeriai.' Now these equinoxes fall on the eighth day before the Kalends of April and the eighth day before the Kalends of October, because the year in olden times was divided into only two parts, that is, into the summer and the winter solstice, and into two hemispheres. XXXV. ON THE SEASONS OF THE YEAR. The seasons of the year are four:

spring, summer, autumn, and winter. Now the seasons are named from the tempering of their mixture (temperamentum), because in turn they temper one another by moisture, dryness, heat, and cold. These are also called 'courses' (curricula), because they do not stand still but run. It is established that, after the making of the world, from the character of the sun's course the seasons were divided into groups of three months each. Of these seasons the ancients make such a distinction that in the first month spring is called new, in the second full-grown, in the third headlong. So too is summer, in its three months, new, full-grown, and headlong. So too is autumn, new, full-grown, and headlong. Likewise winter, new, full-grown, and headlong or utmost. Whence comes that verse (Virgil, Georgics 1.340): 'At the fall of utmost winter.' Now spring (ver) is so called because it grows green (viret).

For then, after the winter, the earth is clothed with grasses, and all things burst into flower. Summer (aestas) is named from heat (aestus), that is, from warmth; and 'aestas' is as it were 'scorched' (usta), that is, burnt up and dry. For heat is a drying thing. Autumn (autumnus) is named from the season (tempestas) in which the leaves of the trees fall and all things ripen. Winter (hiems) the reckoning of the hemisphere named, because at that time the sun is carried round in a shorter circle. Hence this season is also called 'bruma,' as it were 'brachus,' that is, short; or from food, because then the appetite for eating is greater. For gluttony is called in Greek 'broma'; whence too those in whom there is a loathing of food are said to be 'inbrumarii.' 'Hibernus' (wintry) stands between winter (hiems) and spring (vernum), as it were 'hievernus'; and this word for the most part signifies, by a part standing for the whole, the winter.

These seasons are also assigned to the several regions of the heavens. Spring indeed is given to the east, because then all things arise (oriuntur) out of the earth; summer to the south (meridianus), inasmuch as that quarter is more ablaze with heat; winter to the north, inasmuch as it is numbed with cold and perpetual frost; autumn to the west, on account of which it has grievous diseases, whence too at that time all the leaves of the trees fall away. That autumn should abound in diseases, the border-line of cold and heat brings about, and the mutual clashing of contrary airs. XXXVI. ON YEARS. A year is the circuit of the sun, when, after three hundred and sixty-five days have been completed, it returns to the same positions of the stars. Now a year (annus) is so called because it revolves with its months recurring upon themselves.

Hence too a ring is called 'anulus,' as it were 'annuus,' that is, a circle, because it returns upon itself; as Virgil says (Georgics 2.402): 'And the year rolls back upon itself through its own footsteps.' For thus, among the Egyptians, before letters were invented, it was signified by a painted serpent biting its own tail, because it runs back upon itself. Others say that a year (annus) is from 'apo tou ananeousthai,' that is, from renewal; for it is always renewed. Now there are three kinds of years. For a year is either lunar, of thirty days; or solstitial, which contains twelve months; or great, when all the planets recur to the same place, which comes about after very many solstitial years. The reckoning of the individual years (aera) was established by Caesar Augustus, when, having first stirred up a census, he described the Roman world.

Now 'aera' is so called from this, that the whole world professed to render bronze (aes) to the commonwealth. XXXVII. ON OLYMPIADS AND LUSTRA AND JUBILEES. The Olympiad was established among the Greeks at Elis, a city of Greece, the Eleans conducting a contest and a games held every five years, with four years lying between; and on this account they called the time of the Elean contest an Olympiad, four years being reckoned in one Olympiad. A 'lustrum' indeed is a 'penteteris,' that is, a five-year period, which is said to be constituted in the fifth year on account of the Olympiads by the Romans; for as yet there were no consuls, as yet no era. For it is a five-year span of time. And it was so named for this reason, that, the census having been carried through over five years in the commonwealth, the city of Rome was purified (lustrabatur). A jubilee is interpreted as the year of remission.

For it is both a Hebrew word and a Hebrew number, which is woven together of seven weeks of years, that is, of forty-nine years; in which the trumpets were sounded, and to all men their ancient possession was restored, debts were released, and liberties were confirmed. This same number we also ourselves celebrate in the days of Pentecost after the Lord's resurrection, our guilt being remitted and the bond of the whole debt cancelled, receiving, free from every fetter, the grace of the Holy Spirit coming upon us. XXXVIII. ON AGES AND GENERATIONS. Ages (saecula) consist of generations; and hence 'saecula,' because they follow (sequantur) one after another: for as some depart, others succeed them. This year some call the fiftieth year, which the Hebrews call the jubilee.

For this reason too that Hebrew servant, who out of love for his wife and children and his master had his ear bored through and was subjected to servitude, is commanded to serve 'for ever' (in saeculum), that is, up to the fiftieth year. An 'age' (aetas) is often used both for a single year, as in the annals, and for seven, as in the case of a man, and for a hundred, and for any span of time whatever. Hence too an 'age' is a period of time which is composed of many generations (saecula). And 'aetas' is so called as it were 'aevitas,' that is, the likeness of 'aevum.' For 'aevum' is a perpetual age, of which neither the beginning nor the end is known, which the Greeks call 'aiones'; and this among them is sometimes used for an age, sometimes for that which is eternal. Whence too it has been derived among the Latins. Now 'aetas' is properly used in two ways:

either of a man, such as infancy, youth, old age; or of the world, of which the first age is from Adam to Noah; the second from Noah to Abraham; the third from Abraham to David; the fourth from David to the deportation of Judah into Babylon; the fifth thereafter, from the deportation of Babylon, to the coming of the Saviour in the flesh; the sixth, which is now being carried on, until this world shall come to an end. The course of these ages is surveyed through the generations and kingdoms as follows. XXXIX. ON THE DESCRIPTION OF THE TIMES. The first age contains at its outset the creation of the world. For on the first day God, under the name of light, founded the angels; on the second, under the designation of the firmament, the heavens; on the third, under the term of separation, the shape of the waters and of the earth;

on the fourth, the lights of heaven; on the fifth, living creatures out of the waters; on the sixth, living creatures out of the earth, and man, whom he named Adam. The first age. Adam at 230 years begat Seth, from whom came the sons of God. [230]. Seth at 205 years begat Enos, who began to call upon the name of the Lord. [435]. Enos at 190 years begat Cainan. [625]. Cainan at 170 years begat Malaleel. [795]. Malaleel at 165 years begat Jared. [960]. Jared at 162 years begat Enoch, who was translated. [1122]. Enoch at 165 years begat Methuselah. [1287]. Methuselah at 167 years begat Lamech. [1454]. Lamech at 188 years begat Noah. The ark is built. [1642]. Noah, moreover, at 600 years, the flood came to pass.

[2242] [Noah indeed, when he was 500 years old, begat three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. In the six-hundredth year of his life the flood came to pass. Now from Adam to the deluge there are 2252 years.] The second age. Shem, when he was 100 years old, two years after the flood begat Arphaxad, from whom came the Chaldeans. [2244]. Arphaxad at 135 years begat Sala, from whom came the Samaritans and the Indians. [2379]. Sala at 130 years begat Heber, from whom came the Hebrews. [2509]. Heber at 134 years begat Peleg. The tower is built [at this time the languages were divided and the dispersion over the earth took place at the building of the tower]. [2643]. Peleg at 130 years begat Reu. The gods are first worshipped. [2773]. Reu at 132 years begat Serug.

The kingdom of the Scythians begins. [2905]. Serug at 130 years begat Nahor. The kingdom of the Egyptians arises. [3035]. Nahor at 79 years begat Terah. The kingdom of the Assyrians and of the Sicyonians springs up. [3114]. Terah at 70 years begat Abraham. Zoroaster invents magic. [3184]. The third age. Abraham at 100 years begat Isaac and Ishmael, from whom came the Ishmaelites. [3284]. Isaac at 60 years begat Jacob. The kingdom of the Argives begins. [3344]. Jacob at 90 years begat Joseph. Phoroneus gave laws to Greece. [3434]. Joseph lived 110 years. Greece began to have crops. [3544]. The servitude of the Hebrews in Egypt lasted 144 years. Atlas discovered astrology. [3688]. Moses lived 40 years.

The Hebrews began to have letters. [3728]. Joshua lived 27 years. Erichthonius first yoked the four-horse chariot at Troy. [3755]. Othniel lived 40 years. Cadmus gave letters to the Greeks. [3795]. Ehud lived 80 years. Fables were invented. [3875]. Deborah lived 40 years. Apollo discovered the cithara. [3915]. Gideon lived 40 years. Mercury fashioned the lyre. [3955]. Abimelech lived 3 years. The chorus was invented in Greece. [3958]. Tola lived 23 years. Priam reigned at Troy. [3981]. Jair lived 22 years. Carmentis discovered the Latin letters. [4003]. Jephthah lived 6 years. Hercules cast himself into the flames. [4009]. Abesan lived 7 years. Alexander [Paris] carried off Helen. [4016]. Abdon lived

8 years. Troy was captured. [4024]. Samson lived 20 years. Ascanius founded Alba. [4044]. Eli the priest lived 40 years. The ark of the covenant is captured. [4084]. Samuel and Saul lived 40 years. Homer is thought to have lived. [4124]. The fourth age. David lived 40 years. Carthage is founded by Dido. [Gad, Nathan, and Asaph prophesied.] [4164]. Solomon lived 40 years. The Temple is built at Jerusalem. [4204]. Rehoboam lived 17 years. The kingdom of Israel and Judah is divided. [4221]. Abijah lived 3 years, under whom Abimelech was high priest. [4224]. Asa lived 41 years. Ahijah, Amos, Jehu, Joel, and Azariah prophesied. [4265]. Jehoshaphat lived 25 years. Elijah, Obadiah, and Micah prophesied. [4290]. Jehoram lived 8 years.

Elijah and Elisha prophesied. [4298]. Ahaziah lived 1 year. Elijah is caught up. [4299]. Athaliah lived 7 years. Jehonadab the priest was renowned. [4306]. Joash lived 40 years. Elisha dies. [4346]. Amaziah lived 29 years. Carthage is founded. [4375]. Uzziah lived 52 years. The Olympiad is instituted by the Greeks. [4427]. Jotham lived 16 years. Romulus is born. [4443]. Ahaz lived 16 years. Rome is founded. [4459]. Hezekiah lived 29 years. The Senate is established at Rome. [4488]. Manasseh lived 55 years. The Samian Sibyl was renowned. [4543]. Amon lived 21 years. The census is first carried out. [4555]. Josiah lived 32 years. Thales the philosopher is recognized. [4587]. Jehoiakim lived 11 years. Nebuchadnezzar captures Judea. [4598].

Zedekiah lived 11 years. The Temple at Jerusalem is burned. [4609]. The fifth age. The captivity of the Hebrews lasted 70 years. The history of Judith is written. [4679]. Darius reigned 34 years. The captivity of the Jews is ended. [4713]. Xerxes reigned 20 years. The tragedians Sophocles and Euripides are celebrated [held most famous and distinguished]. [4733]. Artaxerxes reigned 40 years. Ezra renews the burned Law. [4773]. Darius (also called Nothus) reigned 19 years. This age had Plato. [4792]. Artaxerxes reigned 40 years. The history of Esther is completed. [4832]. Artaxerxes (also called Ochus) reigned 26 years. Demosthenes and Aristotle are proclaimed. [4858]. Xerxes (son of Ochus) reigned 4 years. Xenocrates is held illustrious.

[4862]. Darius (son of Arsames) reigned 6 years. Alexander took Jerusalem. [4868]. Alexander the Macedonian reigned 5 years. Alexander gained possession of Asia. [4873]. Ptolemy reigned 40 years. The first book of the Maccabees begins. [4913]. Philadelphus reigned 38 years. The Seventy translators are recognized. [4951]. Euergetes reigned 26 years. Jesus [son of Sirach] composes the book of Wisdom. [4977]. Philopator reigned 17 years. The history of the second book of the Maccabees. [4994]. Epiphanes reigned 24 years. The Romans gained possession of the Greeks. [5018]. Philometor reigned 35 years. Scipio conquered Africa. [5053]. Euergetes reigned 29 years. Brutus subdued Spain. [5082]. Soter reigned 17 years. The Thracians are subjected to the Romans. [5099].

Alexander reigned 10 years. Syria is subjected by the Romans. [5109]. Ptolemy reigned 8 years. The art of rhetoric began at Rome. [5117]. Dionysius reigned 30 years. Pompey captures Judea. [5147]. Cleopatra reigned 2 years. Egypt is subjected to the Romans. [5149]. Julius Caesar reigned 5 years. He first held the monarchy. [5154]. The sixth age. Octavian reigned 56 years. Christ is born. [5210]. Tiberius reigned 23 years. Christ is fixed to the cross. [5233]. Gaius Caligula reigned 4 years. Matthew wrote his Gospel. [5237]. Claudius reigned 14 years. Mark published his Gospel. [5251]. Nero reigned 14 years. Peter and Paul are put to death. [5265]. Vespasian reigned 10 years. Jerusalem is overthrown by Titus. [5275]. Titus reigned 2 years.

He was eloquent and pious. [5277]. Domitian reigned 16 years. John is banished to Patmos. [5293]. Nerva reigned 1 year. John returns to Ephesus. [5294]. Trajan reigned 19 years. John the apostle rests [in death]. [5313]. Hadrian reigned 21 years. Aquila is regarded as a translator. [5334]. Antoninus Pius reigned 22 years. Valentinus and Marcion become known. [5356]. Antoninus Verus reigned 19 years. The heresy of the Cataphrygians arises. [5375]. Commodus reigned 13 years. Theodotion is regarded as a translator. [5388]. Aelius Pertinax reigned 1 year. He has nothing of history. [5389]. Severus reigned 18 years. Symmachus is regarded as a translator. [5407]. Antoninus reigned 7 years. A fifth edition is found at Jerusalem. [5414].

Macrinus reigned 1 year. The brevity of his life has nothing of achievement. [5415]. Aurelius reigned 3 years. Sabellius arises. [5418]. Alexander reigned 13 years. Origen is held distinguished. [5431]. Maximus reigned 3 years. He conquered the Germans. [5434]. Gordian reigned 7 years. He triumphed over the Parthians and Persians. [5441]. Philip reigned 7 years. He was the first Christian emperor. [5448]. Decius reigned 1 year. Antony the monk was renowned. [5449]. Gallus reigned 2 years. Novatus founded a heresy. [5451]. Valerian reigned 15 years. Cyprian is crowned with martyrdom. [5466]. Claudius reigned 2 years. He drove the Goths out of Illyricum. [5468]. Aurelian reigned 5 years. He persecutes the Christians. [5473].

Tacitus reigned 1 year. [He did nothing memorable.] [5474]. Probus reigned 6 years. The heresy of the Manichaeans arose. [5480]. Carus reigned 2 years. He triumphs over the Persians. [5482]. Diocletian reigned 20 years. He, having burned the divine books, makes martyrs. [5502]. Galerius reigned 2 years. [He contributed nothing worthy of history.] [5504]. Constantine reigned 30 years. The Council of Nicaea is assembled. [5534]. Constantius reigned 24 years. The heresy of the Anthropomorphites arises. [5558]. Julian reigned 2 years. He is turned from a Christian into a pagan. [5560]. Jovian reigned 1 year. He was again made a Christian. [5561]. Valentinian reigned 14 years. The Goths are made heretics. [5575]. Gratian reigned 6 years. Priscillian becomes known. [5581].