詞源與文集 第 1 章 第 6/8 段

are those things which, among the grammarians, are said to be what we ought to guard against in our speech. Now these are: barbarism, solecism, acyrologia, cacemphaton, and the rest. [2] Barbarism is the corruption of a single word (as if one should lengthen the third syllable in 'ignoscere'). [3] Solecism is the faulty joining of words (as if someone should say 'inter hominibus' for 'inter homines'). [4]

Acyrologia is an improper expression, as (Lucan 2:15): 'Liceat sperare timenti' (Let the fearful be allowed to hope). But it is proper to the fearful to dread, not to hope; and (Virgil, Aeneid 5:287): 'Gramineo in campo' (on a grassy field). For it is proper to call a field 'graminosum,' not 'gramineum.' Cacemphaton is an obscene expression, or one that sounds uncouth. [5] Obscene, as (Virgil, Aeneid 1:579): 'His animum arrecti dictis' (roused in spirit by these words). Uncouth,

as in (Virgil, Aeneid 2.27): 'It is pleasing to go and see the Dorian camp.' For it was a poor arrangement to begin with the very syllable with which the preceding word had ended. [6] Pleonasm is the superfluous addition of a single word, as in (Virgil, Georgics 2.1): 'Thus far the tilling of the fields and the stars of heaven.' For the stars are nowhere except in heaven. [7] Perissologia is the superfluous addition of many words, as in

(Deuteronomy 33:6): 'Let Reuben live and not die' — since to live is nothing other than not to die. [8] Macrologia is long-windedness, embracing things that are not necessary, as in (Livy, fragment 64 M.): 'The envoys, peace not having been obtained, returned back home whence they had come.' [9] Tautology is saying the same thing, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 1.546): 'If the fates preserve the man, if he still feeds upon the ethereal air,'

and does not yet lie fallen among the cruel shades. For the whole of what is repeated is one single thing, but announced in repeated speech. [10] Ellipsis is a defect of expression in which necessary words are lacking, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 4.138): 'On whom a quiver of gold' — for the word 'was' is missing. [11] Tapinosis is a lowering, weakening the standing of a great matter by the words used, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 1.118): 'Here and there appear'

[men] swimming in the vast whirlpool. [12] He put 'whirlpool' for 'sea.' Cacosyntheton is a faulty arrangement of words, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 9.609): 'And we weary the backs of the bullocks with the turned spear.' [13] Amphibolia is ambiguous expression, which arises either through the accusative case, as in that reply of Apollo to Pyrrhus (Ennius, Annals 179): 'I say that you, son of Aeacus, the Romans can conquer.' In which it is not

certain which of the two that very verse has shown to be the victor. [14] It also arises through uncertain punctuation, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 1.263): 'He will wage a mighty war in Italy.' The punctuation is uncertain, whether 'a mighty war' or 'mighty Italy.' [15] It also arises through a verb of common voice, as in: 'Cato entreats, Cicero accuses, Brutus awaits, Antonius disdains'; nor is it shown in this

ambiguity whether they entreated or accused others, or others [entreated or accused] them. [16] It also arises through homonyms, whereby many things are signified by a single word, as 'acies' when you do not add either 'of the sword-edge,' or 'of the eyes,' or 'of the battle-line.' XXXV. ON METAPLASMS. [1] Metaplasm in the Greek tongue is called 'transformation' in Latin. It occurs within a single word on account of the necessity of the meter and the license

license of the poets; and its species are these. [2] Prothesis is an addition at the beginning of a word, as 'gnato' for 'nato' (born) and 'tetulit' for 'tulit' (he bore). Epenthesis is an addition in the middle, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 3.409): 'Let your descendants abide in religion (relligione),' for 'religione'; and 'relliquias' for 'reliquias,' 'induperator' for 'imperator.' [3] Paragoge is an addition at the end, as 'admittier' for

'admitti,' 'magis' for 'mage,' and 'potestur' for 'potest.' Aphaeresis is a cutting off from the beginning, as 'temno' for 'contemno' (I despise). Syncope is a cutting off from the middle, as 'forsan' for 'forsitan' (perhaps). Apocope is a cutting off from the end, as 'sat' for 'satis' (enough). [4] Ectasis is a lengthening contrary to nature, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 1.499): 'Diana leads (exercet) the dances'; (Virgil, Aeneid 1.2): 'Italiam fato,' when

'Italiam' ought to be pronounced with a short syllable. Systole is a shortening contrary to nature, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 6.773): 'and the city Fidena,' when the first syllable ought to be lengthened; as when we say 'Orion' with a short syllable, though it ought to be pronounced long. Diaeresis is the splitting of a syllable into two, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 9.26): 'dives pictai vestis' (rich in embroidered raiment) for 'pictae'; (Ennius, Annals 33): 'Albai longai' for 'Albae longae.'

[5] Episynaloephe is the gluing together of two [syllables] into one, as 'Phaethon' for 'Pha-ethon,' 'Neri' for 'Nerei,' 'aeripedem' for 'a-eripedem.' Synaloephe is the elision of vowels joined to vowels, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 9.1): 'And while these things are carried on in a far distant quarter.' [6] Ecthlipsis is the elision of consonants with vowels, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 1.3):

'Much was he buffeted both on lands and on the deep.' Antithesis is the substitution of one letter for another, as 'inpete' for 'impetu,' 'olli' for 'illi.' Metathesis is the transposition of a letter, as 'Thymbre' for 'Thymber,' 'Evandre' for 'Evander.' [7] [It should be understood that] between barbarism and the figures — that is, between correct and perfect diction — stands the metaplasm, which occurs within a single word

with faulty diction. Likewise, between solecism and schema — that is, the perfect connection of words — stands the figure, which occurs in the joining of words with faulty diction. Therefore metaplasms [and] schemata are intermediate, and are distinguished by skill and lack of skill. But they are employed for adornment. XXXVI. ON FIGURES (SCHEMATA). [1] 'Schemata' is rendered from Greek into Latin speech as 'figures,' which

occur in words or sentences through various forms of expression for the sake of adorning the discourse. Although these are many among the grammarians, the following are found. [2] Prolepsis is anticipation, where those things which ought to follow are placed first, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 12.161): 'Meanwhile the kings, in mighty array, Latinus...' For he ought to have said thus: 'Meanwhile the kings, in mighty array,' and at once added

what follows: 'they advance from the camp,' and then to say: 'Latinus,' and so on; but for the sake of adornment an anticipation of the matter was made, and the kings, who ought to have followed, were inserted within seven verses, and afterward was added: 'They advance from the camp.' Hence too it is called 'anticipation,' because those things which ought to have followed were placed first. [3] Zeugma is a clause, when several senses are closed off by a single word,

which occurs in three ways. For that word which joins the clauses is placed either at the beginning, or at the end, or in the middle. At the beginning, as in (Lucilius 139): 'The bottom is turned in the wine-jars, and our resolve [turned] for us.' In the middle, as in (Ennius, Annals 329): 'Greece was given by lot to Sulpicius, Gaul to Cotta.' At the end, as in (Terence, Andria 68): 'For at this time compliance [begets] friends, truth [begets] hatred'

begets. [4] Hypozeuxis is a figure contrary to the preceding, where in individual clauses each has its own proper phrase, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 10.149): 'He approaches the king, and to the king he recounts his name and lineage.' [5] Syllepsis, in dissimilar clauses, is either a plural expression completed by a singular verb, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 1.553): 'his companions and the king being recovered,' or a singular expression by a plural

verb completed, as in (Virgil, Eclogues 1.81): 'We have mellow apples, and abundance of pressed cheese.' For above he said 'sunt' (there are). Here he ought to have said: 'there is (est) also an abundance of pressed cheese.' [6] Syllepsis occurs not only through the parts of speech, but also through the accidents of the parts. For where one is put for many and many for one, there is syllepsis. One for many, as in that passage

(Virgil, Aeneid 2.20): 'And they fill the belly [of the horse] with armed soldiery,' although not with one, but with many soldiers. Likewise many for one, as in the Gospel (Matthew 27:44): 'The thieves who were crucified with him reviled him,' where by the plural both are represented as having blasphemed, though it was but one. [7] Anadiplosis is when the following verse begins with the same word with which the preceding verse ended, as in that passage (Virgil,

Eclogues 8.55): 'Let owls vie even with swans, let Tityrus be Orpheus — Orpheus in the woods, Arion among the dolphins.' [8] Anaphora is the repetition of the same word at the beginnings of many verses, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 3.157): 'We, having followed you when Dardania was set ablaze, and your arms; we, having traversed under your lead the swelling sea with our fleets.' [9] Epanaphora is, within a single verse, at the beginnings of the sense-units

the repetition of the same word, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 7.759): 'You the grove of Anguitia, you Fucinus with its glassy wave, you the clear lakes bewept.' [10] Epizeuxis is the doubling of a word within a single sense, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 4.660): 'Thus, thus it pleases me to go among the shades.' [11] Epanalepsis is the repetition, at the end, of a word placed at the beginning of a verse, as in that passage (Juvenal 14.139): 'The love of'

money grows as much as the wealth itself grows. [12] Paronomasia is a nearly identical word with a different meaning, as in: 'Is it fitting for you to go away (abire) or to die (obire)?' that is, to become an exile, or to die. [13] Schesis onomaton is a multitude of nouns joined together, linked within a certain compass, as in: 'Clouds, snow, hail, storms, thunderbolts, winds.' [14] Paromoeon is a multitude of words beginning from one

letter, such as is found in Ennius (Annals 109): 'O Titus Tatius, tyrant, such great sufferings did you yourself bring upon yourself.' But Virgil tempers this well, since he does not use this figure throughout a whole verse, as Ennius does, but now only at the beginning of a verse, as in that passage (Aeneid 1.295): 'Sitting savage upon his arms'; and now at the end, as (Aeneid 3.183): 'Cassandra alone [foretold] to me such calamities,'

was singing. [15] Homoeoptoton is when many nouns are declared in a single case, as in that passage (Virgil, Aeneid 12.903): 'But neither running nor going does he recognize himself, nor lifting the huge stone with his hand and moving it.' [16] Homoeoteleuton is when many words end in one and the same way, as in (Cicero, Against Catiline 2.1): 'he has gone, departed, escaped, broken forth.' [17] Polyptoton is when

a sentence is varied by different cases, as in (Persius 3.84): 'From nothing nothing [comes], and to nothing nothing can return.' and (Persius 5.79): 'Dama, [slave] of Marcus. Bravo! With Marcus standing surety, do you refuse? Marcus has spoken. So it is. Sign the tablets, Marcus.' [18] Hirmos is a sentence of continuous discourse that preserves its own tenor all the way to the end, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 1.159): 'There is in a long recess'

a place, an island [forming] a harbor, and the rest. For from here the sense proceeds at length up to that verse (Virgil, Aeneid 1.165): 'And a dark grove looms with bristling shades.' [19] Polysyndeton is an expression linked together by many conjunctions, as in (Virgil, Georgics 3.344): 'His dwelling, and his household god, and his arms, and his Amyclaean dog.' [20] Dialyton or asyndeton is a figure which, on the contrary, without

conjunctions is uttered loosely and plainly, as: 'We came, we saw, it pleased us.' [21] Antitheton is where contraries are set against contraries and render the sentence beautiful, as in that passage (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.19): 'Cold things fought with hot, moist with dry, soft with hard, things without weight with things having weight.' [22] Hypallage is whenever, by way of the contrary, words

are understood, as in (Virgil, Aeneid 3.61): 'To give the south winds to the fleets,' whereas we give the ships to the winds, not the winds to the ships. XXXVII. ON TROPES. [1] Grammarians call by the Greek name 'tropes' what in Latin are rendered 'modes of expression.' They arise from a proper signification to a non-proper likeness. To note down the names of them all is most difficult, but out of them all

Donatus wrote down thirteen to be handed on for use. [2] Metaphor is the borrowed transfer of some word, as when we say 'the crops billow,' 'the vines bud with gems,' since in these things we find neither billows nor gems, into which these words are transferred from elsewhere. But this and other tropical expressions, in order that the things to be understood [may exercise the reader], are for that reason clothed in figurative garb

and covered over, so that they may exercise the reader's understanding, and lest, being naked and ready to hand, they become cheap. [3] Metaphors are made in four ways: from the animate to the animate, as: 'He mounts the wing-bearing horses.' Speaking metaphorically, he mixed the wings of a bird with a quadruped; and (Virgil, Eclogues 6.80): 'By what course she sought the wastelands' — he mixed the running [of a quadruped] with a flying creature. From the inanimate to the inanimate, as:

'The pine ploughs the sea, the deep keel presses a furrow.' He mixed the practice of the land with the waters, since to plough and to press a furrow pertains to the land, not to the sea. [4] From the inanimate to the animate, as 'flowering youth': he mixed inanimate flowers with youth, which possesses a soul. From the animate to the inanimate, as: 'You, father Neptune, whose hoary temples, girded by the resounding brine, resound — great',

you from whose everlasting chin Ocean flows forth, and rivers wander through your hair.' For the chin, the temples, and the hair pertain not to Ocean, but to human beings. [5] Thus other names of things too are most fittingly transferred from one class into another class, for the sake of ornament, so that the discourse may be thoroughly adorned. But a metaphor is either of one direction only, as 'the crops billow' (you cannot say

'the waves crop' [as though billowing like grain]), or it is antistrophic, that is, reciprocal, as 'the oarage of wings.' For both the wings of ships and the oarage of wings are spoken of. [6] Catachresis is the name of a foreign thing applied [to another]. It differs from metaphor in this: that metaphor bestows [a word] upon something that already has one, whereas this, because it has no proper term, uses an alien one, as in (Virgil, Georgics 2.131): 'And in appearance most like the laurel'; and