There are two Balearic islands of Spain: Aphrosiades and Gymnaside, the greater and the lesser; whence too the common people call them Maiorica and Minorica. On these islands the sling with which stones are hurled was first invented, whence too they are called Baleares; for 'ballein' in Greek means 'to throw'; whence also the ballista, as though a 'thrown thing,' and the sling-catapult (fundibalum). Virgil (Georg. 1,309): 'the lashes of the Balearic sling.' VII. ON PROMONTORIES. It is common to islands that they jut out. Hence too their places are called promontories. Thus Sallust concerning Sardinia (Hist. 2, fr. 2): 'It projects broader to the East than to the West.' Sigeum is a promontory of Asia, where the Hellespont opens out more widely.
It is called Sigeum on account of the silence of Hercules, because, being refused hospitality by Laomedon, king of the Trojans, he feigned departure, and from there came against Troy in silence, which is called 'sige.' Maleum is a promontory of Greece, which enters the sea and stretches out for fifty miles; where the wave is so savage that it seems to pursue those sailing. This promontory took its name from Maleus, king of the Argives. Pelorum is a promontory of Sicily looking toward the North wind, named, according to Sallust (Hist. 4,39), from the helmsman of Hannibal buried there. Pachynum is a promontory of Sicily facing the South wind, named from the thickness of the air, for 'pachys' is 'fat and thick': for it is blown through by the South wind.
Lilybaeum is a promontory of Sicily facing the sun's setting, named from the city of the same name that is situated there. Borion is a promontory of Numidia, so called because it faces the North wind. This was afterward called Hippo Regius, because it is interrupted by the sea. Calpe is a promontory of Spain. VIII. ON MOUNTAINS AND THE OTHER TERMS OF THE EARTH. Mountains (montes) are the highest swellings of the lands, so called because they are eminent (eminentes). Some, moreover, have been named from their own particular causes, of which those are to be noted which are celebrated by report as the greatest. Mount Caucasus, stretched from India as far as Taurus, is called by different names wherever it goes, according to the variety of peoples and languages.
But where it rises up to a loftier height toward the east, it is called Caucasus from the whiteness of its snows. For in the eastern tongue 'caucasum' means 'white,' that is, whitening with the densest snows. Whence too the Scythians, who are joined to this same mountain, called it 'Croacasim.' For 'casim' among them means whiteness or snow. Mount Taurus is called by very many the same as Caucasus. Libanus is the highest mountain of the Phoenicians, of which the prophets made mention; it is named from frankincense (tus), because it is gathered there. That part of it which is above it, looking toward the eastern quarter, is called Antilibanus, that is, 'opposite Libanus.' Ararat is a mountain of Armenia, on which historians testify that the ark settled after the flood.
Whence even to this day the traces of its timbers are seen in that same place. The Acroceraunian mountains are so called on account of their height and the strokes of lightning; for in Greek lightning is called 'keraunos.' They are between Armenia and Iberia, beginning from the Caspian Gates as far as the source of the river Tigris. The Hyperborean mountains of Scythia are so called because above, that is, beyond them, blows Boreas. The Riphaean mountains are at the head of Germany, named from the perpetual blast of the winds; for 'riphe' in Greek means force and 'orme,' 'apo tou riptein' ('from hurling'). Olympus is a mountain of Macedonia, exceedingly lofty, so that the clouds are said to be beneath it. Of which Virgil (Lucan 2,271): 'Olympus rose above the clouds.' It is called Olympus as though 'Ololampus,' that is, as though heaven.
因此，直到今日，它的木材殘跡仍在同一地方被看見。阿克羅克勞尼亞諸山之所以如此稱呼，是由於它們的高度與雷電的擊打；因為希臘語中雷電稱為「keraunos」。它們位於亞美尼亞與伊比利亞之間，從裏海之門開始，一直到底格里斯河的源頭。斯基泰的許珀耳玻瑞亞諸山之所以如此稱呼，是因為在其上、即在它們之外，吹著波瑞阿斯（北風）。里費亞諸山位於日耳曼尼亞的盡頭，得名於諸風不停的吹送；因為希臘語中「riphe」意即衝力與「orme」，即「apo tou riptein」（源於「投擲」）。奧林波斯是馬其頓的一座山，極其高聳，以至於據說雲層都在它之下。維吉爾（實為盧坎 2,271）論及它：「奧林波斯高過了雲層。」它稱為奧林波斯，彷彿是「Ololampus」，也就是彷彿是天。
This mountain divides Macedonia from Thrace. Athos is a mountain of Macedonia, and it too higher than the clouds, and so lofty that its shadow reaches to Lemnos, which is separated from it by seventy-six miles. Parnassus is a mountain of Thessaly next to Boeotia, which is raised into the sky with a twin peak. It is split into two ridges, Cyrrha and Nissa; whence too it was named, because on each ridge Apollo and Liber were worshipped. These ridges are called from the two brothers Cithaeron and Helicon. For Helicon is named from Helicon, brother of Cithaeron. Likewise the Ceraunia are mountains of Epirus, named from the frequent lightning-strikes. For in Greek lightning is called 'keraunos.'
The Apennine mountain is so named as though 'the Poenine Alps,' because Hannibal, coming to Italy, opened these same Alps. Whence too Virgil (Aen. 10,13): 'he sends in the opened Alps'; for these Hannibal, after the wars of Spain, broke open with vinegar; Juvenal (10,153): 'and broke the mountain with vinegar.' And thence the very places which he broke open are called the Apennine Alps. Mount Aetna is named from fire and sulphur; whence too 'Gehenna.' It is agreed, moreover, that on that side where the East wind or the African wind blows, it has caves full of sulphur and drawn down as far as the sea, which caves, receiving the waves into themselves, create a wind, which, when agitated, begets fire from the sulphur; whence it is that a conflagration is seen. The Pyrenees too are named from the frequent fires of lightning.
For in Greek fire is called 'pyr.' This is the range which, as though on purpose, lies between Gaul and Spain as a fortification. Solurius is named from its singularity, because it seems the only one loftier than all the mountains of Spain [or because, when the sun rises, its ray is seen before the sun itself is discerned]. Calpe is a mountain in the farthest borders of the Ocean, which divides Europe from Africa, which they say is the boundary of Atlas. Of which Lucan (1,555): 'the Hesperian Calpe, and he filled the topmost Atlas.' Atlas was the brother of Prometheus and king of Africa, by whom they say the art of astrology was first devised; and therefore he was said to have upheld the heaven.
Because of his learning in the discipline and his knowledge of the heaven, therefore, his name was transferred to a mountain of Africa, which is now called Atlas: which, on account of its height, seems to sustain, as it were, the machine of heaven and the stars. But the Alps are properly mountains of Gaul. Of which Virgil (Georg. 3,474): 'the airy Alps'; and by saying 'airy' he expressed the word from the word. For in the tongue of the Gauls high mountains are called 'alpes.' For these are the mountains that serve as walls for Italy. Hills (colles) are the more prominent ridges of mountains, as though 'necks' (colla). The ridges (iuga) of mountains are so named because by their nearness they are joined (iungantur). A mound (tumulus) is a short mountain, as though swelling (tumens) earth. Likewise a tumulus is heaped-up earth where there is no memorial.
Valleys (valles) are low places, as though 'torn out' (vulsa). Hence also 'valleys' (convalles) are the depressed places of the lands between mountains. A plain (campus) is a levelness of the lands. It is called a plain because it is short (brevis) for the feet, nor upright like mountains, but open and spread out and lying in its own extent; whence too in Greek it is called 'pedion.' It took its name, moreover, from Greek etymology; for the Greeks call 'short' 'chamai.' The soil (solum) is everything that sustains, named of course from its solidity (soliditas). Whence too Virgil says of the sea (Aen. 5,199): 'and the ground is drawn away beneath.' Glades (saltus) are vast and wooded places, where trees leap up (exiliunt) on high. Jaws (fauces) are the approaches of narrow places between steep mountains, narrow and short places, named from the likeness of the throat (faucium), as though 'foces.'
Confrages are places into which winds rush from every side and break themselves (sese frangunt). As Naevius says (trag. 58): 'in the mountains where the winds were breaking the place.' Scabra are places rough with neglect. Whence too 'scab' (scabies) is named, from the roughness of the body. Lairs (lustra) are the dark hiding-places of wild beasts and the couches of wolves. Whence too brothels (lupanaria) are called 'lustra,' by contraries of course, because they are little lit up (inlustrantur). A grove (lucus) is a place hedged about with dense trees, withdrawing the light (lucem) from the ground. It can also be named from 'shining together' (conlucendo) with frequent lights, which were made there on account of the religion and worship of the heathen. Deserts (deserta) are so called because they are not sown (seruntur) and therefore are as it were abandoned (deseruntur); such are the places of woods and mountains, contrary to the most fruitful lands, which are of the most fertile clod.
Devia are secret and hidden places, as though outside the way (extra viam). These same are also 'trackless' (invia). Hence too 'coverts' (aviaria) are secret places and remote from the way, or accessible only to birds (avibus). Whence is that verse (Virg. Georg. 2,430): 'the uncultivated coverts grow red with berries.' Varro says that pleasant places (amoena) are so called because they alone afford love (amorem) and allure to loving themselves. Verrius Flaccus holds that they are so called because they are without service (munere) and there is no duty to them, as though 'amunia,' that is, without profit, whence no profit is paid out. Hence too those affording nothing are called 'immune.' Sunny places (aprica) are those that rejoice in the sun, as though 'aneuphrikes,' that is, without cold; or because they are under an open (aperto) sky. Shady places (opaca), however, are as though under a covered (operto) sky, contrary to the sunny. A place is called slippery (lubricum) from the fact that someone slips (labitur) there.
And it is called 'slippery' not because it slips, but because in it one slips. Summer-places (aestiva) are shady places, in which during summer the flocks avoid the sun's heat. Statius (Theb. 1,363): 'and the summer-places of shady Lycaeus lay open.' Dockyards (navalia) are places where ships are built. This is also called a 'weaving-shop' (textrinum). A roadstead (statio) is where ships stand for a time; a harbor (portus), where they winter; but an 'inportunum' (unfavorable place) is one in which there is no refuge, as though no harbor. A harbor, moreover, is a place removed from the access of the winds, where they are wont to set up their winter quarters: and a harbor (portus) is named from the carrying in (deportandis) of merchandise. The ancients called this 'baiae' from the carrying (baiolandis) of wares, by that declension 'from baia, baias,' as 'from familia, familias.' A shore (litus) is the land near the water and the sea.
它之所以稱為「濕滑」，並非因為它滑倒，而是因為人在其中滑倒。夏處（aestiva）是陰涼之地，牲畜在夏天於此躲避太陽的炎熱。斯塔提烏斯（《底比斯戰紀》1,363）：「以及陰涼的呂卡俄斯的夏處敞開。」船塢（navalia）是建造船隻的地方。這也稱為「編織坊」（textrinum）。錨地（statio）是船隻暫時停泊之處；港（portus），是它們過冬之處；而「inportunum」（不利之地）是其中沒有避難處的地方，彷彿沒有港口。此外，港是遠離諸風進襲之處，人們慣於在那裡設置越冬的處所：港（portus）得名於貨物的搬入（deportandis）。古人以貨物的搬運（baiolandis）稱它為「baiae」，按那種變格「從 baia 變 baias」，如同「從 familia 變 familias」。海岸（litus）是靠近水與海的陸地。
And it is called a shore (litus) because it is struck (eliditur) by the wave, or because it is washed (adluitur) by the water. Cicero in the Topics (32): 'A shore is where the wave plays (eludit).' A 'circumluvium' is a place which water washes around (circumluit); an 'adluvium' is the wearing away of banks by the waters. A margin (margo) is a part of any place whatsoever, for example of the sea; whence too it took its name. 'Maritima' (coastal regions) is as though the innermost parts of the sea (maris intima). Mouths (ostia) are named from the entrance and exit of a river into the sea. A continent (continens) is continuous land, divided by no sea, which the Greeks call 'epeiron.' IX. ON THE LOWER PLACES. A cave (specus) is a pit under the earth through which one can look; 'spelaia' in Greek, 'speluncae' (caverns) in Latin. All places of pestilential vapor are called 'spiracula' (vents), which the Greeks call 'Charoneia' or 'Acheronteia.' Varro too calls such a place a 'spiraculum.'
And 'spiracula' are so called from this, the places by which the earth exhales breath (spiritum). A chasm (hiatus) is a deep rupture of the earth, as though a 'going' (itus). Properly, however, 'hiatus' is the opening of a man's mouth, transferred from wild beasts, whose greed is shown by the opening of the mouth. 'Profundum' (the deep) is properly, as it were, that whose bottom (fundus) is far off (porro). By abuse, however, 'profundum' is said of what is either above or below, as (Virg. Aen. 1,58): 'the seas and lands and the deep sky.' 'Barathrum' is a name for excessive depth: and it is called 'barathrum' as though a 'black abyss' (vorago atra), namely from its depth. 'Erebus' is the depth and recess of the underworld. 'Styx' is named 'apo tou stygeros,' that is, from sadness (tristitia), because it makes people sad or because it begets sadness.
「spiracula」之所以如此稱呼，是由於它們是大地藉以呼出氣息（spiritum）的地方。裂隙（hiatus）是大地深邃的裂開，彷彿是一種「行進」（itus）。然而嚴格說來，「hiatus」是人張口的動作，是從野獸轉借而來的，牠們的貪婪藉張口而顯明。「深淵」（profundum）嚴格說來彷彿是其底部（fundus）遙遠（porro）之物。然而在濫用中，「profundum」可指在上或在下之物，如（維吉爾《埃涅阿斯紀》1,58）：「諸海、諸地與那幽深的天。」「barathrum」是指過度的深度：它之所以稱為「barathrum」，彷彿是「黑暗的深淵」（vorago atra），即得名於它的深邃。「Erebus」是陰間的深處與幽隱。「Styx」得名於「apo tou stygeros」，即源於悲傷（tristitia），因為它使人悲傷，或因為它生出悲傷。
Cocytus is a place of the underworld, concerning which Job speaks in this way. Cocytus took its name from the Greek interpretation, from mourning and groaning. It is called Tartarus either because all things there are thrown into turmoil, from tartarizein, or, what is truer, from taraches, that is, from the trembling of cold, which is to be numb and stiff with frost, namely because it lacks light and the sun; for there are no vapours there, which are produced from the light of the sun, nor any breeze, which is stirred by its motions, but a perpetual stupor; for tartarizein is read among the Greeks as to shudder and to tremble. For there is 'weeping and gnashing of teeth' (cf. Matt. 8:12).
Gehenna is a place of fire and brimstone, which they think is so called from a valley consecrated to idols, which lies beside the wall of Jerusalem, once filled with the corpses of the dead; for there the Hebrews used to sacrifice their sons to demons, and that very place was called Gehennon. Therefore the place of future punishment, where sinners are to be tormented, is designated by the name of this place. And they say that Gehenna is twofold, both of fire and of cold. It is called Inferus (the lower place) because it is below. For just as in respect of the body, if things keep the order of their weight, all the heavier things are lower, so in respect of the spirit all the more sorrowful things are lower; whence also in the Greek tongue the origin of the name by which the underworld is called is said to resound from the fact that it has nothing pleasant.
And just as the heart of an animal is in the middle, so the underworld is said to be in the middle of the earth. Whence also we read in the Gospel (Matt. 12:40): 'In the heart of the earth.' But the philosophers say that the underworld regions (inferi) are so called because the souls are borne (ferantur) thither from here.