Etymologies & Works 20 part 2/2

The 'pharos' (lighthouse) is a very great tower, which the Greeks and Latins in common called 'pharos' from the use of the thing itself, because by the sign of its flames it is seen from afar by those sailing, as we said above (15,2,37); such a one as Ptolemy is reported to have built near Alexandria for eight hundred talents. Its use is to display fires in the nocturnal course of ships in order to signal the shallows and the entrances of harbors, lest sailors, deceived by the darkness, fall upon the rocks: for Alexandria has treacherous accesses by its deceitful shallows. Hence therefore in harbors they call the machines constructed for the service of shining beforehand 'pharoi'; for 'phos' is light, 'horos' is called 'seeing.' Whence also 'Lucifer' (the morning star) is called in Greek 'phosphoros.' XI. ON LITTERS AND CHAIRS. 'Lecticae' (litters) are named from beds of gathered herbs ('lectis herbis').

The 'stratus' (bedding) is named from spreading out ('sternendo'), as if 'storiatus.' On these alone the ancients used to lie down to sleep, woolen bedding not yet having been discovered. The 'storia' (mat) is so called because it is earth spread out ('terra strata'). The 'cama' is short and near the ground; for the Greeks call something short 'chamai.' The 'cubile' (couch) is a place for lying down ('cubandi'). The 'grabatum' (cot) is Greek. The 'baianula' is a bed which is carried on a journey, from 'baiolando,' that is, carrying about. The 'pulvinar' is the bed of the rich: hence also 'pulvillus' (little cushion). 'Spingae' are those on which are sphinx-figures ('spingatae effigies'), which we call griffins. 'Punicani lecti' are small and low beds first brought from Carthage, and named from that. 'Lecticae,' or reading-couches ('plutei lecti'). Concerning which Rutilius Rufus, in his account of his own life (13):

'First,' he says, 'contrary to the custom of commanders, he himself used litters ('lecticis') in place of couches.' The 'sponda,' moreover, is the outer part of the bed, the 'pluteus' the inner. 'Geniales lecti' (marriage-beds) are properly those that are spread for girls being married; and they are named from the begetting of children ('generandis liberis'). 'Cunabula' (cradles) are little beds in which infants have been accustomed to lie, so called because they are applied to the newborn ('partui'), as if 'cynabula'; for 'kyein' in Greek is to bring forth. The 'feretrum' (bier) is so called because on it the dead are borne ('deferantur'); and it is a Greek name; for 'feretron' is said 'apo tou pherein,' that is, from carrying. For in Latin it is called 'capulus,' because it is carried over the heads ('capita') of men. So Plautus says (Mil. 628): 'a coffin-ready old man' ('capularis senex'), that is, near to the coffin ('capulo'). 'Scamna' (benches) are those which are placed by rather high beds;

and they are named from 'scandendo' [that is, from ascending]. Hence also 'scabilli' (footstools), which are placed by small beds or chairs for the sake of ascending. The 'scabillum' is also called 'suppedaneum'; for what the Greeks call 'hypopodion,' the Latins have called 'scabillum,' and others have called it 'suppedaneum,' because it is under the feet ('sub pedibus'). 'Scansilia' are steps where the honored sit in their seats. 'Sedes' (seats) are so called because among the ancient Romans there was no custom of reclining; whence they were said 'considere' (to sit down). Later, as Varro says in 'On the Life of the Roman People,' the men began to recline, the women to sit, because reclining was thought unseemly in a woman. 'Sedis' in the singular number properly belongs to a kingdom, which in Greek is called 'thronos.' Likewise the Greeks say 'thronum'; we say 'solium.'

But 'subsellia' (benches) belong to the rest, 'cathedrae' (chairs) to the teachers. The 'solium,' in which kings sit for the protection of their body, is according to some named from 'soliditas' (solidity), as if 'solidum'; according to others by antistichon, as if 'sodium,' from 'sedendo' (sitting). Whence also 'sella' (seat) is said as if 'sedda,' and 'subsellia' as if 'subseddia.' The 'sella curulis' (curule chair) was that in which the magistrates sitting rendered justice. They are called 'curules' because among the ancients the praetors and consuls, on account of the length of the journey, were conveyed to the forum in a chariot ('curru'); but the chairs, which were carried behind them, on which sitting they were wont to pronounce judgments, are named 'sellae curules' from the chariot ('curru'). 'Tripodes' are little stools ('scamelli') having three feet. But also 'candelabra' are three-footed, because they likewise have three feet. XII.

ON VEHICLES. The 'carrum' (cart) is named from the hinge ('cardine') of the wheels; whence also 'currus' (chariots) are so called, because they seem to have wheels. The 'rota' (wheel) is so called because it rushes ('ruat'); and 'rotundum' (round) is named from 'rota.' The 'reda' is a kind of four-wheeled vehicle. These the ancients called 'retas,' because they had wheels ('rotas'). The 'carpentum' is a processional kind of vehicle, as if 'carrum pompaticum.' The 'plaustrum' is a two-wheeled vehicle by which loads are carried: and it is called 'plaustrum' because it rolls ('volvitur'), as if one were to say 'pilastrum.' The 'caracutium' is a vehicle of very high wheels, as if 'carrum acutum.' The 'capsus' is a fully-enclosed 'carruca' (coach), as if 'capsa' (case). The 'pilentum' or 'petorritum' are covered four-wheeled vehicles, which matrons formerly used. Virgil (Aen. 8,666): 'The mothers in soft carriages ('pilentis').'

Horace (Sat. 1,6,104): 'More camp-servants and horses must be fed, a four-wheeled wagon ('petorrita') must be drawn.' Now the 'pilenta' were formerly of a Venetian (sky-blue) color, not, as they are now, dyed red; and none but chaste matrons could use them, just as none but they could use the fillets ('vittis'). The 'basterna' is a vehicle [for a journey, as if 'viae sternax,' composed with soft bedding, carried by two beasts]. XIII. ON THE REMAINING THINGS THAT ARE IN USE. The 'baculus' (staff) is said to have been invented by Bacchus, the discoverer of the vine, that men moved by wine might lean upon it. And just as 'baculus' comes from Bacchus, so 'bacillum' comes from 'baculus' by diminution. 'Fustes' (cudgels) are so called because, fixed in the ground, they stand ('praefixi stent'), which the country people call 'pali' (stakes); with these the young men are struck for their crimes. 'Vectes' (levers, bars) are so called because they are wielded ('vectentur') by hands, whence doors and stones are wrenched away.

'Forfices' (shears): according to the etymology, if they are named from 'filum' (thread), an F is put, as 'forfices' which belong to tailors; if from 'pilus' (hair), a P, as 'forpices' which belong to barbers; if from 'accipiendo' (taking), a C, as 'forcipes,' because they take up the hot ('formum capiant'), which belong to smiths. For the ancients called what is hot 'formum'; whence also 'formosus' (beautiful, 'shapely, glowing'). The 'novacula' (razor) [is so called because it renews ('innovet') the face]. 'Pectines' (combs) are said because they make the hair combed ('pexos') and arranged. The 'calamistrum' (curling-iron) is a pin which, heated and applied, warms and curls the hair. Whence also those who curl their hair are called 'calamistrati.' The 'clavis' (key) is so called because it shuts ('claudat') and opens. The 'catenatum' (chain-lock) is so called because by seizing ('capiendo') it holds. 'Horologia' (clocks, sundials) are so called because there we read ('legamus') the hours, that is, we gather them ('colligamus');

for it is placed on sundials, where the shadow runs by the peg along the lines, so as to show whatever hour of the day it is. XIV. ON RUSTIC IMPLEMENTS. The 'vomer' (plowshare) is so called because it turns up ('eruat') the earth by force ('vi'), or from 'evomendo' (vomiting out) the earth. Concerning which Lucretius (1,314): 'The iron hook of the plow, the plowshare, wears away unseen in the fields, and takes on brightness through its losses.' The 'aratrum' (plow) is named from plowing ('arando') the earth, as if 'araterrium.' The 'buris' is the curved part of the plow, so called as if 'boos oura,' because it is in the likeness of an ox's tail. The 'dentale' is the front part of the plow; on which the plowshare is fitted like a tooth ('dens'). 'Cultelli' (small knives) are named from cultivation ('cultura'), because with them the ancients used to prune the tree and the vine, before pruning-hooks ('falces') had been discovered. The 'falcis' (sickle) is that with which trees and vines are pruned;

and it is called 'falcis' because with these the soldiers used first to cut down the fern-grass ('herbam filicem'). Whence comes that verse (Martial 14,34): 'The sure peace of our leader has bent me to peaceful uses: now I belong to the farmer, before I belonged to the soldier.' The 'falcastrum' is named from its likeness to a sickle ('falcis'): it is a curved iron tool with a long handle, for cutting down the density of thickets. These are also called 'runcones,' with which brambles are cut, so named from 'runcando' (weeding out). The 'serrula' (small saw) is a very thin blade of iron cutting through trees or branches by the biting of its teeth. 'Rastra' (rakes, mattocks) are so called either from scraping ('radendo') the earth or from the sparseness ('raritate') of their teeth. 'Ligones' (hoes) are so called because they lift up ('levent') the earth, as if 'levones.' The 'scudicia' is so called because it opens up the earth around the tree-trunk ('codicem');

and although its use is had in other works, yet it retains its name from the trunk ('codice'). This others call generally a 'fossorium' (digger), because it makes a pit ('foveam'), as if 'fovessorium.' The 'sarculus' (hoe). And they are either single or two-pronged ('bicornes'). The farmers call a two-forked iron tool by which seeds are planted a 'pastinatum.' Whence also old vineyards which are dug over again are said to be 'repastinari' (trenched anew). The 'cylindrus' is a smooth stone in the shape of a column, which has received its name from its rolling ('volubilitate'). Concerning which Virgil (Georg. 1,178): 'The threshing-floor above all must be leveled with a great roller ('cylindro'), and turned by hand.' The 'tribula' is a kind of vehicle by which grain is threshed ('teruntur'), and for this reason it is so called. The 'pala' (shovel), which is commonly called a 'ventilabrum' (winnowing-fan), is named from winnowing ('ventilandis') the chaff ('paleis').

'Furcillae' (small forks) are so called because with them grain is stirred ('celluntur'), that is, moved. Whence also 'oscilla' (swinging things) are so called from the fact that the mouths ('ora') are moved ('cillantur'), that is, are set in motion. For 'cillere' is to move. 'Tesserae' are those by which the number of grain-measures is marked out. The 'trapetum' is an olive-mill. The 'prelum' (press-beam) is the beam by which the trodden grape is pressed, named from pressing ('premendo'), as if 'pressorium.' The 'prelum,' by which oil is pressed. The 'lacus' (vat), into which the liquid flows off, by which oil and wine are forced out by squeezing from grapes or olives. 'Verennes' are named from carrying ('vehere'), that is, exporting. 'Qualos' (wickerwork baskets) and 'cola' (strainers) of the presses, through which the must flows, are named from straining ('colando'). The 'fisclum' is as it were 'fiscolum,' named from straining oil, or as if a 'fiscella' (little basket) for oil. XV. ON GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. The 'rota' (waterwheel) is so called because it as it were rushes ('ruat'):

for it is a machine by which water is drawn out from a river. Lucretius (5,517): 'We see the wheels ('rotas') turn in the river, and the buckets ('austra').' The 'austra,' that is, the wheel, is named from drawing ('auriendo') water. The 'girgillus' is so called because it is turned in a circle ('in giro'): for it is a piece of wood movable on a crosswise pole, from which a rope with a bucket or skin is let down into a well for the sake of drawing water. The garden-workers call a long piece of wood by which they draw waters a 'telon.' And the 'telon' is named from its length ('longitudine'); for 'telon' among the Greeks means whatever is long; whence also they call the weasel 'mustela' as if 'mus longus' (a long mouse). This implement the Spaniards call a 'ciconia' (stork), because it imitates the bird of the same name, raising water and lowering its beak, while it clatters. The 'ama' (bucket).

The 'lupus' (wolf), which is also called 'canicula' (little dog), an iron 'harpax' (grappling-hook), because, if anything falls into the well, it seizes and draws it out; whence also it received its name. The 'harpax' is so called because it snatches ('arripit'); for 'harpe' in Greek is to snatch. The 'sarculus' (hoe). XVI. ON THE IMPLEMENTS OF HORSES. 'Phalerae' (trappings) are ornaments of horses; and it is a Greek word. 'Frena' (bridles, bits) are so called because they compel horses to chafe ('fremere'), or because horses grind ('frendant') and bite these with their teeth. Whence also suckling piglets are called 'nefrendes,' because they do not yet grind ('frendant') anything, that is, do not break it up with their teeth. Hence also 'faba fresa' (crushed bean), which is ground. 'Lupati' are the harshest bits: they are called 'lupati' from wolf-teeth ('lupinis dentibus'), which are uneven, whence also their bite does grievous harm. The 'camus' (muzzle).

'Habenae' (reins) are named from 'habendo' (holding), because with them we hold ('habeamus') horses, that is, we restrain them; whence also horses are called 'habiles' (manageable). These are also 'retinacula,' from restraining ('retinendo'). 'Lora' (thongs, reins). 'Capistri' (halters) are named from the head ('capite') of the beasts of burden. The 'sella' (saddle) from sitting ('sedendo'), as if 'sedda.' The 'antela' as if 'antesella' (front-saddle-strap), just as the 'postela' as if 'postsella' (rear-strap). 'Cingulum' (girth) of the kind belonging to men is of the neuter gender; but of animals we say these 'cingulas' in the feminine gender. The 'sagma' (packsaddle), which is commonly said in corrupted form 'salma,' is named from the spreading of horse-cloths ('stratu sagorum'): whence also a 'caballus sagmarius' (pack-horse), a 'mula sagmaria' (pack-mule). The 'capulum' is a rope, from 'capiendo' (taking), because by it untamed beasts of burden are taken hold of.

'Calcaria' (spurs) are so called because they are bound at the heel ('calce') of a man, that is, at the hinder part of the foot, for goading the horses which must either fight or run, on account of the sluggishness or fear of the animals. For 'stimuli' (goads) are named from fear ('timore'), though there are also goads of desire. 'Strigiles' (currycombs) are named from wiping ('tergendo'), because with these horses are wiped ('tergantur'). The 'character' is a heated iron by which marks are branded on cattle: 'charakter' in Greek is called 'forma' (shape, stamp) in Latin. The 'cauterium' (branding-iron) is so called as if 'cauturium,' because it burns ('urat') and there is in it a provident and severe caution ('cautio') that, while it is seen whose the animal is, greed may be curbed. This is applied sometimes as a mark, sometimes as a cure, so that the force of a disease may be dried up by the burning of fire.