Etymologies & Works 6 part 2/3

The kings of Pergamum, since they lacked paper, first devised parchment (membrana). Hence too the name of 'parchments' (pergamena) has been preserved even to this day, posterity handing it down to itself. These are also called 'membrana,' because they are drawn off from the members (membris) of beasts. At first they were made of a yellow, that is, saffron colour, but afterward white parchments were discovered at Rome; which proved to be unsuitable, because they both easily grow dirty and injure the eyesight of readers; since the more skilled architects think that neither gilded ceilings should be placed in libraries, nor floors of any other than Carystean marble, because the gleam of gold dulls the eyes and the greenness of the Carystean refreshes them.

For those too who learn the money-changer's trade place myrtle-green cloths beneath the shapes of the coins, and the engravers of gems from time to time gaze at the backs of beetles, than which nothing is greener, and painters do the same, that they may restore the labour of their sight by greenness. Parchments, moreover, are either white or yellow or purple. White ones exist naturally. Yellow parchment is two-coloured, because it is dyed on one side by the maker, that is, it is made saffron. Of this Persius says (3:10): 'Now the book, and the two-coloured parchment with the hairs removed.' Purple ones are dyed with a purple colour, on which melting gold and silver may show plainly in the letters. XII. ON MAKING BOOKS. Certain kinds of books among the gentiles were made in fixed formats.

Poems and letters were written in a smaller format. But histories were written in a larger format, and not only on paper or parchment, but also on the entrails of elephants and on the woven leaves of mallows and palms. Of this kind Cinna makes mention thus (11): 'These poems, much watched over for you by Aratean lamps, by which we came to know the fires of the air, written on a little book of dry mallow, I brought as gifts on a Prusiac skiff.' The trimming of books first became common in Sicily. For in the beginning they were smoothed with pumice. Hence Catullus too says (1:1): 'To whom do I give this charming new little book, just now polished with dry pumice?' XIII. ON THE TERMS FOR BOOKS. A 'codex' is of many books; a 'book' (liber) is of one volume.

And it is called 'codex' by a transfer from the trunks (codicibus) of trees or vines, as if 'stock' (caudex), because it contains within itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches. A 'volume' (volumen) is a book so called from 'rolling' (volvendo), as among the Hebrews the volumes of the Law, the volumes of the Prophets. 'Liber' is the inner tunic of bark, which clings to the wood. Of this Virgil speaks thus (Ecl. 10:67): 'The bark clings to the lofty elm.' Hence too that in which we write is called 'liber' (book), because before the use of paper or parchment, volumes were made from the barks of trees, that is, they were pieced together. Hence too scribes named copyists 'book-men' (librarios) from the barks of trees. XIV. ON COPYISTS AND THEIR INSTRUMENTS. Copyists were formerly called 'bibliopolae.' For the Greeks call a book 'biblon.'

But copyists (librarii) are also called 'antiquarii'; yet 'librarii' are those who write both new things and old, while 'antiquarii' are those who write only old things, whence they took their name. From 'writing' (scribendo) the scribe (scriba) received his name, expressing his office by the quality of the term. The instruments of the scribe are the reed (calamus) and the quill (pinna). For by these words are fixed onto the pages; but the reed is of a tree, the quill of a bird; whose point is divided into a pair (dyade), unity being preserved in the whole body—I believe on account of a mystery, that in the two points the Old and New Testament might be signified, by which is expressed the sacrament of the Word poured forth in the blood of the Passion. The reed (calamus) is so called because it sets down (ponat) liquid. Hence too among sailors 'to set down' (ponere) is called 'calare.' The quill (pinna) is named from 'hanging' (pendendo), that is, from flying.

For it is, as we have said, of birds. The 'leaves' (foliae) of books are so named either from the likeness of the leaves of trees, or because they are made from 'bellows' (follibus), that is, from skins, which are wont to be drawn off from slaughtered beasts; whose parts are called 'pages' (paginae), because they are joined together (conpingantur) with one another. 'Verses' (versus) are commonly so called because the ancients wrote just as the earth is ploughed. For they first drew the stylus from left to right, then turned back from below, and again the verse toward the right; which even today the country folk call 'versus.' A 'sheet' (scheda) is what is still being corrected, and has not yet been reduced into books; and it is a Greek word, as is also 'tome' (tomus). XV. ON THE CANONS OF THE GOSPELS.

The Canons of the Gospels were first devised by Ammonius of Alexandria, whom Eusebius of Caesarea afterward followed and composed more fully. They were made for this reason: that through them we might be able to find and know which of the Evangelists said things similar to, or proper to, the others. They are ten in number, of which the first contains the numbers in which four said the same things: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John. The second, those in which three: Matthew, Mark, Luke. The third, those in which three: Matthew, Luke, John. The fourth, those in which three: Matthew, Mark, John. The fifth, those in which two: Matthew, Luke. The sixth, those in which two: Matthew, Mark. The seventh, those in which two: Matthew, John. The eighth, those in which two: Luke, Mark.

The ninth, those in which two: Luke, John. The tenth, those in which each of them said certain things proper to himself. Their explanation is this. For throughout the individual Evangelists a certain number lies affixed to the chapters, beneath which numbers is placed a certain figure marked in red, which indicates in which canon the number is placed to which the figure is subjoined. For example: if the figure is '1,' it is in the first canon; if the second, in the second; if the third, in the third; and so on in order until it reaches the tenth. If therefore, when any Gospel has been opened, it pleases one to know which of the other Evangelists said similar things, you will take the adjacent number of the chapter, and you will look for that same number in its canon which it indicates, and there you will find how many and which said it;

and thus at last, having sought out in the body of the text the places which are indicated by those very numbers, you will find that they said the same things throughout the several Gospels. XVI. ON THE CANONS OF THE COUNCILS. 'Canon' in Greek is called in Latin 'rule' (regula). And a 'rule' is so called because it leads rightly (recte), nor ever draws aside in another direction. Others have said that a rule is so called either because it governs (regat), or because it furnishes a norm of living rightly, or because it corrects (corrigat) whatever is distorted and crooked. The canons of the general councils began from the times of Constantine. For in the preceding years, while persecution raged, there was by no means the opportunity for teaching the peoples.

Thence Christianity was rent into diverse heresies, because there was no liberty for the bishops to come together into one, except in the time of the aforesaid emperor. For he himself gave to Christians the faculty of assembling freely. Under him too the holy Fathers, coming together from the whole world in the Council of Nicaea, in accordance with the evangelical and apostolic faith, handed down the second creed after that of the Apostles. Now among the other councils there are four venerable synods which chiefly comprehend the whole faith, like the four Gospels or as many rivers of paradise. The first of these, the Synod of Nicaea, of three hundred and eighteen bishops, was accomplished while Constantine Augustus was reigning.

In it the blasphemy of the Arian faithlessness was condemned, which the same Arius asserted concerning the inequality of the Holy Trinity; and the holy synod defined through the creed that God the Son is consubstantial with God the Father. The second synod, of one hundred and fifty Fathers, was gathered at Constantinople under Theodosius the elder, which, condemning Macedonius, who denied that the Holy Spirit is God, demonstrated that the Holy Spirit is consubstantial with the Father and the Son, giving the form of the creed which the whole confession of Greeks and Latins proclaims in the churches.

The third synod, the first of Ephesus, of two hundred bishops, was issued under Theodosius the younger Augustus, which condemned with a just anathema Nestorius, who asserted two persons in Christ, showing that the one person of our Lord Jesus Christ remains in two natures. The fourth synod, that of Chalcedon, of six hundred and thirty priests, was held under the emperor Marcian, in which, by one sentence of the Fathers, it condemned Eutyches, abbot of Constantinople, who pronounced one nature of the Word of God and of the flesh, and his defender Dioscorus, formerly bishop of Alexandria, and Nestorius himself again together with the remaining heretics;

the same synod proclaiming that Christ the Lord was so born of the Virgin that in him we confess the substance of both the divine and human nature. These are the four principal synods, most fully proclaiming the doctrine of the faith; but also, if there are any councils which the holy Fathers, full of the Spirit of God, have ratified, they remain established with full vigour after the authority of these four, whose acts are contained set down in this work. 'Synod' (synodus) is interpreted from the Greek as 'company' or 'assembly.' But the name 'council' (concilium) is drawn from Roman custom. For in the time when cases were pleaded, all came together into one and treated of matters with a common purpose. Hence too 'council' is so called from a common purpose, as it were 'concilium.' For 'cilia' are of the eyes.

Hence too 'consilium' (counsel) comes from 'considium' (sitting together), the letter D passing over into L. But 'assembly' (coetus) is a gathering or congregation, from 'coming together' (coeundo), that is, from meeting together into one. Hence too 'convention' (conventus) is named, just as 'assembly,' 'gathering,' or 'council,' from the fellowship of many into one. XVII. ON THE PASCHAL CYCLE. The bishop Hippolytus first composed the paschal cycle in the times of the emperor Alexander. After him the most approved authors Eusebius of Caesarea, Theophilus of Alexandria, Prosper too, by nation an Aquitanian, and Victorius, having amplified the reckonings of the same festival, issued manifold cycles.

Indeed the most blessed Cyril, bishop of the city of Alexandria, with the utmost brevity noted the reckoning of this over ninety-five years, calculating by five times nineteen, as to on which day of the Kalends or on which moon the paschal solemnity ought to be celebrated. It is called a 'cycle' (cyclus) because it is arranged in a circle, and comprehends the order of years as if disposed in a ring, without variation and without any artifice. Hence it came about that poems of any subject-matter, made in a simple uniformity, were called 'cyclic.' Hence too a 'laterculum' (calendar) is so called, because it holds the order of years laid out. [The moons and dates of Easter follow:] B. In the second common year, the 2nd day before the Ides of April, moon 20. C. The 6th before the Kalends of April, moon 16. Em. The 16th before the Kalends of May, moon 17. C. The 6th before the Ides of April, moon 20. B. C. The 9th before the Kalends of April, moon 15. E. The 2nd before the Ides of April, moon 16. C. The 2nd before the Nones of April, moon 19.

[The paschal cycle table continues:] E. The 8th before the Kalends of May, moon 20. B. C. The 5th before the Ides of April, moon 15. C. The 2nd before the Kalends of April, moon 18. E. The 12th before the Kalends of May, moon 19. C. The Nones of April, moon 15. B. C. The 5th before the Kalends of April, moon 17. E. The 16th before the Kalends of May, moon 18. C. The 6th before the Ides of April, moon 21. C. The 9th before the Kalends of April, moon 17. B. E. The 11th before the Ides of April, moon 17. C. The 2nd before the Nones of April, moon 20. E. The 8th before the Kalends of May, moon 21. C. The 5th before the Ides of April, moon 18. B. C. The 2nd before the Kalends of April, moon 20. E. The 12th before the Kalends of May, moon 21. C. The Nones of April, moon 17. C. The 5th before the Kalends of April, moon 20. B. E. The 16th before the Kalends of May, moon 20. C. The Kalends of April, moon 16. E. The 11th before the Kalends of May, moon 17. C. The Ides of April, moon 20. B. C. The 5th before the Kalends of April, moon 15. E. The 15th before the Kalends of May, moon 16. C. The 5th before the Ides of April, moon 19. C. The 8th before the Kalends of April, moon 15. B. E. The Ides of April, moon 15. C. The Nones of April, moon 18. C. The 5th before the Kalends of April, moon 21. E. The 4th before the Ides of April, moon 15. B. C. The Kalends of April.

[The paschal cycle table continues:] moon 17. E. The 11th before the Kalends of May, moon 18. C. The 8th before the Ides of April, moon 15. C. The 4th before the Kalends of April, moon 18. B. E. The 15th before the Kalends of May, moon 18. C. The 5th before the Ides of April, moon 21. C. The 8th before the Kalends of April, moon 17. E. The 18th before the Kalends of May, moon 18. B. C. The Nones of April, moon 20. E. The 7th before the Kalends of May, moon 16. C. The 4th before the Ides of April, moon 22. C. The 6th before the Nones of April, moon 20. B. E. The 11th before the Kalends of May, moon 20. C. The 8th before the Ides of April, moon 16. C. The 4th before the Kalends of April, moon 19. E. The 14th before the Kalends of May, moon 20. B. C. The 4th before the Nones of April, moon 15. C. The 8th before the Kalends of April, moon 18. E. The 18th before the Kalends of May, moon 18. C. The 3rd before the Kalends of April, moon 19. B. E. The 14th before the Kalends of May, moon 15. C. The 2nd before the Ides of April, moon 19. C. The 7th before the Kalends of April, moon 15. E. The 17th before the Kalends of May, moon 16. B. C. The 8th before the Ides of April, moon 18. C. The 4th before the Kalends of April, moon 21. E. The 3rd before the Ides of April, moon 15. C. The 3rd before the Nones of April, moon 18. B. E. The 10th before the Kalends of May.

[The paschal cycle table continues:] moon 18. C. The 18th before the Kalends of May, moon 21. C. The 3rd before the Kalends of April, moon 17. E. The 13th before the Kalends of May, moon 18. B. C. The 4th before the Ides of April, moon 20. C. The 7th before the Kalends of April, moon 16. E. The 17th before the Kalends of May, moon 16. C. The 7th before the Ides of April, moon 20. B. C. The 11th before the Kalends of April, moon 15. E. The 3rd before the Ides of April, moon 16. C. The 3rd before the Nones of April, moon 19. E. The 9th before the Kalends of May, moon 20. B. C. The 7th before the Ides of April, moon 16. C. The 3rd before the Kalends of April, moon 19. E. The 13th before the Kalends of May, moon 20. C. The 2nd before the Nones of April, moon 16. B. C. The 7th before the Kalends of April, moon 17. E. The 18th before the Kalends of May, moon 19. C. The 2nd before the Kalends of April, moon 15. E. The 12th before the Kalends of May, moon 16. B. C. The 3rd before the Ides of April, moon 18. C. The 3rd before the Nones of April, moon 21. E. The 16th before the Kalends of May, moon 15. C. The 6th before the Ides of April, moon 18. B. C. The 3rd before the Kalends of April, moon 20. E. The 13th before the Kalends of May, moon 21. C. The 2nd before the Nones of April, moon 17. C. The 6th before the Kalends of April, moon 20. B. E. The 17th before the Kalends.

[The paschal cycle table concludes:] Of May, moon 20. C. The 2nd before the Kalends of April, moon 16. E. The 12th before the Kalends of May, moon 16. After the completion of this, one must return to the first beginning. [From the foundation of the world up to this most recent cycle the years are reckoned.] In antiquity the Church celebrated Easter on the fourteenth moon together with the Jews, on whatever day it might fall. The holy Fathers prohibited this rite in the Synod of Nicaea, establishing that not only should the paschal moon and month be inquired after, but that the day of the Lord's resurrection should also be observed; and on this account they extended Easter from the fourteenth moon to the twenty-first, so that the Lord's Day should not be omitted. Now the word 'Pascha' is not Greek, but Hebrew;

It is not named from 'suffering,' although PASCHEIN in Greek means 'to suffer,' but from the Hebrew word for 'passing over,' pascha, because at that time the people of God passed over out of Egypt. Whence also in the Gospel (John 13:1) it says: 'When Jesus knew that his hour was come that he should pass out of this world to the Father.' Its night is therefore kept as a vigil, on account of the coming of our King and God, so that the time of his resurrection may find us not sleeping but watching. Of this night there is a twofold reckoning: either because in it he then received life again, since he had suffered; or because afterward, at the same hour at which he rose, he is to come to judge.

We celebrate the Pasch in such a manner that we not only recall to memory the death and resurrection of Christ, but also consider the other things which are attested concerning him, unto the signification of the sacraments. For on account of the beginning of a new life, and on account of the new man which we are bidden to put on—while putting off the old and purging out the old leaven, that we may be a new lump, since Christ our Pasch is sacrificed—on account of this newness of life, therefore, the first month of the new produce was mystically assigned among the months of the year to the paschal celebration.

That the Pasch is celebrated on a day of the third week—that is, the day that falls between the fourteenth and the twenty-first—signifies this: that in the whole time of the world, which is reckoned by the sevenfold number of days, it is now the third age that has laid open this mystery. For the first age is that before the Law, the second under the Law, the third under grace, wherein now is made manifest the mystery formerly hidden in the prophetic riddle. Therefore also, on account of these three ages of the world, the resurrection of the Lord occurred after three days. And that the paschal day is sought from the fourteenth moon up to the twenty-first, through seven days, is on account of that very sevenfold number by which the signification of universality is often figured;

which number is also attributed to the Church itself on account of its likeness to universality, whence too the Apostle John in the Apocalypse writes to seven churches. But the Church, still set in this mortality of the flesh, is signified in the Scriptures by the name of the moon, on account of that very changeableness. Now the varied observance of opinions concerning the paschal festival at times begets error. For the Latins seek the moon of the first month from the third day before the Nones of March up to the third day before the Nones of April; and if the fifteenth moon should fall on a Sunday, they defer the Pasch to another Sunday. The Greeks observe the moon of the first month from the eighth day before the Ides of March up to the day of the Nones of April; and if the fifteenth moon should fall on a Sunday, they celebrate the holy Pasch.

This sort of disagreement between the two parties, therefore, disturbs the paschal rule. That is called a common year which has only twelve moons, that is, three hundred and fifty-four days. And it is called 'common' because often two such are joined and proceed together, so that they follow one another in the paschal solemnity. For the embolismic year is always alone. An embolismic year is one which is shown to have thirteen lunar months, that is, three hundred and eighty-four days. This is the year divinely revealed to holy Moses, in which those who dwelt farther off are commanded to celebrate the Pasch in the second month. Now 'embolismus' is a Greek word, which is rendered in Latin as 'super-increment,' because it fills up the number of the common years, in which eleven lunar days are seen to be lacking.

Now embolismic and common years are found out thus. For if from the fourteenth moon of the preceding Pasch up to the fourteenth of the following there be three hundred and eighty-four days, it is an embolismic year; if three hundred and fifty-four, it is common. The bissextile is one day added over four years. For a fourth part of a whole unit grows through each single year. But when in the fourth year it has completed a whole unit, it makes one bissextile day. And it is called 'bissextile' because, being reckoned twice-sixfold, it makes a whole unit, which is one day; just as also the 'quadrant' is named from being reckoned fourfold; which is the bissextile day that the sun makes over the course of days in a year.

[Or because it cannot be introduced into its year unless you reckon the sixth day before the Nones of March twice—that is, both on the first day, the sixth before the Nones of March, and, with the second sixth added, you repeat on another day the sixth before the Nones of March.] Now from the sixth day before the Nones of March up to the day before the Kalends of January, in the course of the moon the bissextile is added and thence subtracted. Intercalary days, moreover, are so called because they are interposed so that the reckoning of the moon and the sun may agree. For 'calare' means 'to place,' and 'intercalare' means 'to interpose.' What the Greeks call 'epacts,' the Latins call 'annual lunar additions,' which through the number of eleven revolve within themselves up to thirty. These the Egyptians add so that the lunar measurement may be made equal to the reckoning of the sun.

For the moon, according to its course, is known to shine twenty-nine and a half days, and there come to be in a year three hundred and fifty-four lunar days; there remain to the course of the solar year eleven days, which the Egyptians add. Whence too they are called 'additions': without these you will not find how old the moon is in any given year and month and day. These epacts are always reckoned on the eleventh day before the Kalends of April, in the same moon that shall have been on that day. And they are contained within the nineteen-year cycle; but when they have reached twenty-nine epacts—which is the nineteenth cycle—then in the following year you shall not add eleven upon twenty-nine, so as to announce ten with thirty subtracted, but from there you shall return, so as to pronounce eleven. XVIII. ON THE REMAINING FESTIVALS.

A festival (festivitas) is so called from festive days (festi dies), as it were 'festiditas,' because on them only divine matters are transacted. Contrary to these are the 'fasti,' days on which right is 'declared' (fatur), that is, spoken. A solemnity (sollemnitas) is named from sacred things, so undertaken that it ought not to be changed for religion's sake, named from 'solitum,' that is, from what is firm and solid. [Or from the fact that it is wont (soleat) to occur in the year.] But a 'celebrity' (celebritas) is so called because there nothing earthly, but only heavenly things are transacted. The Pasch is the first of all festivals, concerning whose name it has already been spoken above. Pentecost, like the Pasch, was a notable day among the Hebrews, because it was kept after five tens from the Pasch; whence too it took its name.

For PENTE in Greek is 'five,' on which day, according to the Law, the loaves of proposition of the new fruits were offered. Of this the jubilee year in the Old Testament bore a figure, which now again through figure prefigures the eternal rest of the promise. 'Epiphany' is Greek, in Latin called 'apparition' [or manifestation]. For on that day Christ appeared to the Magi to be adored, by the sign of a star. This was a figure of the first-fruits of the believing Gentiles. On which day too the sacrament of the Lord's baptism and of the water changed into wine—the beginnings of the signs done by the Lord—came forth. Now there are two epiphanies: the first, in which Christ, being born, appeared to the shepherds of the Hebrews, an angel announcing it;

the second, in which, from among the peoples of the Gentiles, a star pointing the way presented the Magi about to adore the cradle of the manger. Scenopegia, a solemnity of the Hebrews, is rendered from Greek into Latin as 'the dedication of tabernacles'; which was celebrated by the Jews in memory of the journey, when, having been brought forth from Egypt, they lived in tabernacles, and from this comes 'scenopegia.' For SKENE in Greek means 'tabernacle.' This solemnity was celebrated among the Hebrews in the month of September. 'Neomenia' is with us the Kalends, but among the Hebrews—because they reckon the months according to the lunar course, and in Greek MENE means 'moon'—hence 'neomenia,' that is, 'new moon.' For among the Hebrews the very days of the Kalends were solemn by legal institution, concerning which it is said in the Psalter (81:4 [Vulg. 80:4]):

'Blow the trumpet at the beginning of the month, on the notable day of your solemnity.' 'Encaenia' is the new dedication of a temple. For in Greek KAINON means 'new.' For when something new is dedicated, it is called 'encaenia.' The Jews celebrated this solemnity of the temple's dedication in the month of October. The Day of Palms is so called because on it our Lord and Saviour, as the Prophet had sung, making his way to Jerusalem, is recorded to have sat upon an ass's colt. Then, as he went with palm branches, the multitude of the peoples cried out to meet him (John 12:13):

'Hosanna, blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord, the King of Israel.' But the common people call this day 'Capitilavium,' because on it there is a custom of washing the heads of the infants who are to be anointed, lest they should come to the anointing soiled by the observance of Lent. On this day, moreover, the Creed is handed over to the candidates on account of the nearness of the solemnity of the Lord's Pasch, so that those who now hasten to receive the grace of God may acknowledge the faith which they confess. The Lord's Supper (Coena Dominica) is so named because on that day the Saviour kept the Pasch with his disciples; which even today, as it was handed down, is celebrated, and on it the holy chrism is prepared, and the beginning of the new and the ceasing of the old Testament is declared.

The Sabbath is named by the Hebrews, from the interpretation of its own word, 'rest,' because on it God rested, the world being finished. Indeed, on that day too the Lord rested in the sepulchre, that he might confirm the mystery of that rest; which was commanded to be observed by the Jews as a shadow of what was to come. But after Christ, in his burial, fulfilled its figure, its observance came to rest. The Lord's Day is so called because on it the joy of the resurrection of our Lord is celebrated. This day was declared not to the Jews but to the Christians unto the resurrection of the Lord, and from that time it began to have its own festivity. For to them alone the Sabbath was handed down to be kept, because it was formerly the rest of the dead;

but the resurrection was of no one who, rising from the dead, would not die again. But after such a resurrection was accomplished in the body of the Lord, so that in the Head there might go before that which the body of the Church might hope for in the end, then the Lord's Day, that is the eighth, which is also the first, began to be celebrated. XIX. ON THE OFFICES. There are very many kinds of offices, but the chief is that which is held in sacred and divine matters. Now 'office' (officium) is named from 'effecting' (efficiendo), as it were 'efficium,' with one letter changed for the sake of the beauty of the word; or surely so that each may do those things which harm (officiant) no one, but profit all. The evening office (vespertinum officium) is at the beginning of night, named from the star Vesper, which rises when night comes on.

But the morning office (matutinum officium) is at the beginning of light, named from the star Lucifer, which rises as morning begins. By the signification of these two times it is shown that God should ever be praised, by day and by night. The Mass (missa) is at the time of the sacrifice, when the catechumens are sent forth (mittuntur), the Levite crying out: 'If any catechumen has remained, let him go forth outside'; and thence 'missa,' because those who are not yet regenerated cannot be present at the sacraments of the altar. The choir (chorus) is a multitude gathered for sacred rites; and it is called 'chorus' because in the beginning they stood in the manner of a crown (corona) around the altars and thus sang the psalms. Others have said 'chorus' from concord, which consists in charity; because, if one has not charity, he cannot respond fittingly.

But when one sings, it is called in Greek 'monody,' in Latin 'sicinium'; when two sing, it is called 'bicinium'; when many, 'chorus.' For 'chorea' is the sport of a ditty, or the dances of companies. 'Antiphon' from the Greek is rendered 'reciprocal voice'; namely, two choirs singing psalms alternately in changed order, or from one to one. This kind of psalmody the Greeks are said to have invented. The Italians handed down responsories. These they call responsorial chants, because when one ceases, the other responds to it. But between responsories and antiphon there is this difference: that in responsories one man says the verse, whereas in antiphons the choirs alternate the verses. It is called a 'reading' (lectio) because it is not sung, like a psalm or a hymn, but only read.

For there melody is sought, here only utterance. A 'canticle' (canticum) is the voice of one singing in gladness. But that is called a 'psalm' (psalmus) which is sung to the Psaltery, which the history sets forth as having been used by David the prophet in a great mystery. Now these two, in certain titles of the Psalms according to the musical art, are alternately set beside one another. For it is a 'canticle of the psalm' when what the instrument plays, the voice of the singer afterward utters. But a 'psalm of the canticle' when what the human voice first speaks, the art of the playing instrument imitates. And 'psalm' is named from the psaltery, whence it is not the custom for it to be composed from any other work. Now there are three grades in singing: the first, of the succentor; the second, of the incentor; the third, of the accentor.