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...joined that it is completed. For the verb alone completes the sense, as 'I write' (scribo). But the adverb without a verb does not have full signification, as 'today' (hodie). You add a verb to it, 'today I write' (hodie scribo), and by the joined verb you have completed the sense. XI. ON THE PARTICIPLE. [1] The participle is so named because it takes the parts (partes) of both the noun and the verb, as it were a 'part-taker' (particapium). For from the noun it claims for itself the genders and cases,

...from the verb the tenses and significations, and from both the number and figure. XII. ON THE CONJUNCTION. [1] The conjunction (coniunctio) is so named because it joins together (coniungat) senses and sentences. For by itself it has no force, but in the coupling of words it displays a kind of glue, as it were. For it either associates nouns, as 'Augustine and Jerome'; or verbs, as 'he writes and reads.' But there is one force of them all,

...whether they couple or disjoin. [2] The copulative conjunctions are so named because they join a sense or persons, as 'you and I, let us go to the forum' (ego et tu eamus ad forum): that 'and' (et) has joined the sense. The disjunctive are so called because they disjoin things or persons, as 'either you or I, let us do it' (ego aut tu faciamus). The subjunctive are so called because they are appended (subiunguntur), as '-que.' For we say 'to the king and to the man and to God' (regique hominique Deoque);

...we do not say 'que to the king, que to the man.' [3] The expletive are so called because they fill out (explent) the matter proposed, as for instance 'if you do not want this, at least do that' (si hoc non vis, saltim illud fac). The common are so named because they may be placed anywhere [and appended], as 'therefore I shall do this' (igitur hoc faciam), 'this therefore I shall do' (hoc igitur faciam). [4] The causal are so named from cause (causa), because they intend to do something, as for instance 'I am killing him, because he has gold'; the cause

...is stated. The rational are so named from the reasoning (ratio) which each one employs in acting, as 'how shall I kill him, so that I am not recognized? by poison or by the sword?' XIII. ON THE PREPOSITION. [1] The preposition (praepositio) is so named because it is placed before (praeponatur) nouns and verbs. The accusative and ablative prepositions are named from the cases which they govern. But the connective (loquellares) prepositions are so called because to particles of speech (loquellis), that is, to words, they always

...cling, and by themselves, when placed alone, they have no force, as 'di-,' 'dis-.' But when joined to verbs they form a compound, as 'diduco' (I draw apart), 'distraho' (I pull asunder). XIV. ON THE INTERJECTION. [1] The interjection (interiectio) is so named because, thrown in (interiecta) among words, that is, interposed, it expresses the feeling of a moved mind, as when 'vah!' is said by one exulting, 'alas!' (heu) by one grieving, 'ha!' (hem) by one angry, 'oh!' (ei) by one fearing. These utterances

...are proper to their respective languages, and are not easily translated into another tongue. XV. ON LETTERS AMONG THE GRAMMARIANS. [1] [How many articulate sounds there are. And a letter (littera) is so called as though 'a path for reading' (legitera), because it affords a path (iter) to those reading, or is repeated (iteretur) in reading.] XVI. ON THE SYLLABLE. [1] 'Syllable' is Greek; in Latin it is called a 'gathering' (conceptio) or 'embrace' (conplexio). For syllable is so called from

...SULLAMBANEIN, that is, from a gathering of letters. For SULLAMBANEIN means 'to gather together.' Hence that is a true syllable which is born of several letters. For a single vowel is called a syllable improperly, not strictly, since it ought rather to be called a measure of time than a syllable. Now syllables are either short, or long, or common. [2] They are called short because they can never

...be lengthened. Long, because they are always lengthened. But common, because at the writer's discretion, when necessity compels, they are both lengthened and shortened. Read Donatus. Syllables are called long and short for this reason: because, through the various pauses of the voice, they seem to have either double or single spans of time. Diphthong syllables are so called by a Greek name, because in them

...two vowels are joined together. [3] Of these, among us there are four true ones: 'ae,' 'oe,' 'au,' 'eu.' But 'ei' was in use only among the ancients. Now among the metricians a syllable is called a 'half-foot' (semipes) because it is half a foot. For a foot consists of two syllables. When, therefore, there is a single syllable, it is as it were a half-foot. Dionysius of Lindus made single, most fitting shapes for all the syllables,

...and for that he was honoured with a statue. XVII. ON FEET. [1] Feet (pedes) are those which stand upon fixed durations of syllables, and never depart from their lawful span. They are called feet because through them metres 'walk.' For just as we advance on feet, so metres proceed as if on feet. Now all the feet are one hundred and twenty-four: the disyllabic four,

...the trisyllabic eight, the tetrasyllabic sixteen, the pentasyllabic thirty-two, the hexasyllabic sixty-four. Up to four syllables they are called feet; the rest are called syzygies. [2] The feet themselves have particular reasons for their names, why they are so called. The pyrrhic is so named because it was frequently practised, either in contest or in children's play.

...The spondee (spondeus) is so called because it sounds drawn-out. For a 'spondeus' is a certain drawn-out thing, that is, a sound which was poured forth about the ears of those sacrificing. Whence also those who played the pipes in the rites of the pagans were called 'spondiales.' [3] The trochee, moreover, is so named because it makes a swift turning of the song, and as it were runs swiftly like a wheel in the metres. For TROCHOS

...means a wheel in Greek. [4] The iamb (iambus) is so named because the Greeks used IAMBOZEIN to mean 'to disparage.' For with a song of this kind the poets were wont to fill out all their invectives and disparagements. And the name was given from the fact that it pours in, as it were, a kind of venom of slander or of spite. [5] The tribrach, which is also called the chorius, is named tribrach because it consists of three

...short syllables. [6] The molossus is named from the dance of the Molossians, which they performed in arms. [7] The anapaest. [It is so called because this foot is more dedicated to relaxations and games.] [8] The dactyl (dactylus) is named from the finger (digitus), because, beginning from the longer measure, it ends in two short syllables. So too this foot has one long juncture and two short ones. Whence also the open hand is called a 'palm,' and

...the hanging fingers are called 'dactyls.' [9] The amphibrach, because it has a short syllable on either side, with a long one lying in the middle. For BRACHUS means 'short.' [10] The amphimacer, because two long syllables on this side and that enclose a short one shut up in the middle. For MAKROS means 'long.' [11] The bacchius is so named because with that foot the Bacchia, that is, the rites of Liber, were celebrated. [12]

...The antibacchius, or palimbacchius, is so named because it is the bacchius reversed. [13] The proceleusmatic, because it is suited to the 'celeuma' (rowing-chant) of those who sing. [14] The dispondee, the ditrochee, and the diiamb are so named because they consist of twin iambs, spondees, or trochees. [15] The antispast, because it is made of contrary syllables: of a short and a long, of a long and a short. [16] The choriamb, moreover,

...because a song composed from this foot is most fitting for choruses. [17] The ionics, indeed, are so named on account of the unequal sound of their measures. For they have two long syllables and two shortened ones. [18] The paeons are named from their inventor. [For they consist of one long and three short syllables, and the long is variously placed according to their names.] [19] The epitrites are so called because they always

...have three long syllables and one short. [20] The syzygies, moreover, are the pentasyllabic and hexasyllabic feet; and they are called among the Greeks SUZUGIAI, as it were certain 'yokings.' But these are not feet; rather they are called pentasyllabic and hexasyllabic, because they do not proceed beyond five and six syllables. Whence in a poem these syllables ought not to exceed in any measure

...a word, as 'Carthaginiensium' (of the Carthaginians), 'Hierosolymitanorum' (of the people of Jerusalem), and 'Constantinopolitanorum' (of the people of Constantinople). [21] To each foot there belong arsis and thesis, that is, the raising and setting of the voice. For feet will not be able to direct their course unless they are alternately raised and set down, as in 'arma' (arms): 'ar' is the raising, 'ma' the setting. In these two, by division, the lawful feet are gathered. The division is equal

...whenever arsis and thesis are cut by an equal division of times. [22] It is double whenever, of these, the one exceeds the other by double. But it is 'sesqui' (one-and-a-half) whenever the one surpasses the other by a half. For in the single part of it one more is found; in the double, one less is had. For 'sescum' means a half. It is triple when the greater part contains the whole

...three times, that is, three to one. It is 'epitrite' when the smaller is contained by the greater, together with a third part of it. The members of the feet are cut either by equality, or by double, or by one-and-a-half, or by triple, or by epitrite. [23] We divide, therefore, into equal parts these feet: the spondee, — —; the pyrrhic, ⏑ ⏑; the dactyl, — | ⏑ ⏑; the anapaest, ⏑

...⏑ | —; the dispondee, — — | — —; the proceleusmatic, ⏑ ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑; the diiamb, — | —; the ditrochee, — ⏑ | — ⏑; the antispast, ⏑ — | — ⏑; the choriamb, — ⏑ | ⏑ —. [24] Likewise we divide into double parts these feet: the trochee, — | ⏑; the iamb, ⏑ | —;

...the molossus, — | — —; the tribrach, ⏑ | ⏑ ⏑; the greater ionic, — — | ⏑ ⏑; the lesser ionic, ⏑ ⏑ | — —. [25] [There is only one that is divided by the triple division, which is the greatest and therefore is present in the smallest metres.] The amphibrach, ⏑ | — ⏑. [26] The 'sesqui' feet, moreover, are these:

The amphimacer, — ∪ —; the bacchius, ∪ — —; the antibacchius, — — ∪; the first paeon, — ∪ ∪ ∪; the second paeon, ∪ — ∪ ∪; the third paeon, ∪ ∪ — ∪; the fourth paeon, ∪ ∪ ∪ —. [27] There remain those which we divide by the epitrite division: the first epitrite, ∪

— — —; the second epitrite, — ∪ — —; the third epitrite, — — ∪ —; the fourth epitrite, — — — ∪. There are therefore ten equal feet, six double, one triple, seven sesquialter, and four epitrites. But there is only one that is divided by the triple division, which is the greatest

and therefore is present in the smallest meters. [28] Now the number of syllables in feet extends from two up to six; for it proceeds no further, because feet are stretched only up to six syllables. In feet there are 'times' (tempora), namely how many each foot has. Resolution of feet occurs when in place of one long two shorts are set, or in place of two longs four shorts, as

(Virgil, Aeneid 2.16): 'and they weave the ribs with sawn fir-wood (abiete).' In 'abiete' there is now a resolution of a spondee into a proceleusmatic, in which resolution Virgil always follows synaloepha. [29] From one long two shorts are made; but from two shorts a long is never made. For solid things can be split, but split things cannot be made solid. A figure (sign) is that by whose mark the syllables

be recognized. For when you see the lower part of a circle set down twice, it is a pyrrhic, ∪ ∪; when you see a doubled I lying flat, a spondee, — —. For the mark of a short is the lower semicircle; the mark of a long is a reclining I. [30] Meters arise from feet, as the trochaic from the trochee, the dactylic from the dactyl, the iambic from the iamb, of which we must speak a little later. XVIII.

ON ACCENTS. [1] The accent, which in Greek is called 'prosody' [it received its name from the Greek]. For in Greek PROS is in Latin 'ad' (to), and ODE in Greek is in Latin 'cantus' (song). For this word is rendered word for word. But the Latins have other names as well. For they call accents both 'tones' and 'tenores', because there the sound rises and ceases. [2] Now it is called 'accentus' (accent) because it is next to

the song (cantus), just as 'adverbium' (adverb) is so called because it is next to the verb (verbum). The acute accent is so called because it sharpens and raises the syllable; the grave, because it lowers and puts it down; for it is contrary to the acute. The circumflex, because it consists of acute and grave. For beginning from the acute it ends in the grave, and thus, while it ascends and descends, the circumflex is produced. The acute and the circumflex

are similar. [3] For both raise the syllable. The grave seems contrary to both. For it always lowers syllables, while those raise them, as (Lucan 1.15): 'Whence comes Titan, and where night hides the stars.' Here 'Vnde' is grave. For it sounds less than the acute and circumflex. [4] Now a monosyllabic part of speech, if it is naturally short, as 'vir' (man), or long by position

as 'ars' (art), it will have the acute accent. But if naturally long, as 'res' (thing), the circumflex. A disyllabic part of speech, if it has its first syllable naturally long and its last short, is circumflexed, as 'Musa'; otherwise it takes the acute. A trisyllabic part of speech, if it has a short middle syllable, as 'tibia', then we make the first acute. But if it has a naturally long second and a last

short, as 'Metellus', then we circumflex the middle. [5] Tetrasyllabic and pentasyllabic parts of speech are governed by the rule of trisyllables. A grave accent can be placed with one other accent in a single word, but never with both; as 'Catullus'. In a compound word there is one accent. [6] Now accents were devised either for the sake of distinction, as (Virgil,