Etymologies & Works 1 part 2/8

the letter, the syllable, feet, accents, points of punctuation, marks, orthography, analogy, etymology, glosses, differences, barbarisms, solecisms, faults, metaplasms, figures, tropes, prose, metres, fables, and histories. VI. ON THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [1] Aristotle first handed down two parts of speech, the noun and the verb; then Donatus defined eight. But all

come back to those two principal ones, that is, to the noun and the verb, which signify person and act. The rest are appendages and draw their origin from these. [2] For the pronoun is born from the noun, whose function it performs, as 'that orator' (orator ille). The adverb is born from the noun, as 'learned, learnedly' (doctus, docte). The participle from the noun and the verb, as 'I read, reading' (lego, legens). But the conjunction and

the preposition and the interjection fall within the compass of these. Therefore some have even defined five parts of speech, because these others are superfluous. VII. ON THE NOUN. [1] The noun (nomen) is so called as if a 'mark' (notamen), because by its own word it makes things known (notas) to us. For unless you know the name, the knowledge of things perishes. Proper nouns are so called because they are particular; for they signify the person of one only.

There are four kinds of proper nouns: the praenomen, the nomen, the cognomen, and the agnomen. The praenomen is so called because it is set before the nomen, as 'Lucius,' 'Quintus.' [2] The nomen is so named because it marks the clan, as 'Cornelius,' for all the Cornelii are in that clan. The cognomen, because it is joined to the nomen, as 'Scipio.' And the agnomen is, as it were, an added name, as 'Metellus Creticus,' because

he subdued Crete. For the agnomen comes from outside, from some circumstance. The cognomen (cognomentum), moreover, is commonly so called because it is added to the name for the sake of recognition (cognitio), or because it goes together with the name. [3] Appellative nouns are so called because they are common and consist in the signification of many. These are divided into twenty-eight kinds, among which are those called corporeal, because they are either

seen or touched, as 'heaven,' 'earth.' [4] Incorporeal, because they lack a body, whence they can neither be seen nor touched, as 'truth,' 'justice.' [5] General, because they belong to many things, as 'animal'; for both man and horse and bird are animals. [6] Special, because they denote a part, as 'man'; for man is a species of the animals. [7] Principal, because they have the primary

position and are not born from elsewhere, as 'mountain,' 'spring.' [8] Derivative, because they are derived from another noun, as from 'mons' (mountain) 'montanus' (mountaineer). [9] Diminutive, because they lessen the sense, as 'Graeculus' (little Greek), 'scholasticulus' (petty scholar). [10] Diminutive in sound, because they sound like diminutives, but in meaning are principal, as 'tabula' (board), 'fabula' (tale). [11] Wholly Greek, because they are wholly declined in Greek,

as 'Callisto'; for thus both the Greek and the Latin say it. [12] Wholly Latin, because they are wholly turned into Latin. The Greek says 'Odysseus,' the Latin 'Ulixes.' [13] They are called mixed because they are partly Greek and partly Latin. The same are also called 'bastard' (notha), because they corrupt the final syllables while the earlier ones remain, as among the Greeks 'Alexandros,' 'Menandros'; among us

'Alexander,' 'Menander.' They are called 'bastard' just as anyone born of an unequal parentage is called a bastard. [14] Synonyms, that is, 'many-named,' because there is one signification in several names, as 'terra,' 'humus,' 'tellus' (earth, ground, soil); for they are all the same. [15] Homonyms, that is, 'one-named,' because there is in one name a manifold signification, as 'tumulus,' now a low

mound, now a swelling of the earth, now a tomb. For in one name there is a diverse signification. [16] Relative nouns are so called because they are referred to another person, as 'master,' 'lord,' 'father.' [17] But those which are said to be somehow disposed toward something are named from a contrary signification, as 'right'; for one cannot be called 'right' unless there be a 'left.'

[18] Further, nouns of quality are so called because through them it is shown of what sort each one is, as 'wise,' 'beautiful,' 'rich.' [19] Nouns of quantity, because they are drawn from measure, as 'long,' 'short.' [20] Patronymics are so called because they are drawn from fathers, as 'Tydides,' the son of Tydeus, 'Aeneius,' the son of Aeneas, although they are also derived from mothers and from ancestors. [21]

Ktetic, that is, possessive, from possession, as 'the sword of Evander' (Evandrius ensis). [22] Epithets, which in Latin are called adjectives or 'superposed,' because they are added to nouns to fill out their meaning, as 'great,' 'learned.' You add them to persons, as 'a great philosopher,' 'a learned man,' and the sense is complete. [23] Nouns of action descend from an act, as 'leader,' 'king,'

'runner,' 'nurse,' 'orator.' Nouns of nation come from a nation, as 'Greek,' 'Roman.' [24] Nouns of homeland descend from a homeland, as 'Athenian,' 'Theban.' Nouns of place from a place, as 'suburban.' [25] Verbal nouns are so called because they are born from a verb, as 'reader' (lector). [26] Participial nouns, which sound like participles, as 'reading' (legens). Verb-like nouns, so called from their likeness to a verb, as

'contemplator'; for it is both a verb of the imperative mood, future tense, and a noun, because it admits comparison. All these kinds descend from the naming of nouns. [27] The second attribute of the noun is comparison. Comparison is so called because from the comparison of one thing it sets another before it. Its degrees are three: positive, comparative, and superlative. The positive is so called

because it is placed first in the degree of comparison, as 'learned' (doctus). The comparative from this, that being compared it is preferred to the positive, as 'more learned' (doctior); for he knows more than the learned man. The superlative from this, that it is carried above the comparative, as 'most learned' (doctissimus); for he knows more than the more learned one. [28] The genders are so called because they generate, as masculine and feminine. The other nouns are not

true genders, but the rule and authority of nouns willed this. The neuter is so called because it is neither this nor that, that is, neither masculine nor feminine. The common gender is so called because it shares one noun between two genders, as 'this' (masculine) and 'this dog' (feminine, haec canis). [29] Its opposite is the epicene, because it declares both sexes under one gender, as 'this fish' (hic piscis); for it is of uncertain sex, since it can neither

be distinguished by nature nor by the eyes, but only by the skill of the understanding. The 'all-gender' (omne genus) is so called because it serves all the genders: masculine and feminine, neuter and common and all. [30] Number is so named because through it nouns are shown as either singular or plural. Figure, because they are either simple or compound. [31] Cases (casus) are so called from 'falling' (cadendo); for through them nouns, being inflected,

are varied and fall. The nominative case is so called because through it we name something, as 'this master' (hic magister). The genitive, because through it we seek the kindred (genus) of anything, as 'the son of this master' (huius magistri filius), or because we signify a thing, as 'the book of this master' (huius magistri liber). [32] The dative, because through it we show ourselves giving something to someone, as 'give to this master' (da huic magistro). The accusative, because through it we accuse someone,

...we accuse, as in 'I accuse this master.' The Vocative, because through it we call upon someone, as in 'O master.' The Ablative, because through it we signify that we take something away from someone, as in 'take it away from the master.' [33] Nouns are called hexaptote from the fact that they have variations through six cases, as is 'unus' (one). Pentaptote, because they are varied in only five cases, as 'doctus' (learned). Tetraptote, because...

...they are declined in only four cases, as 'lateris.' Triptote, because they are declined in only three, as 'templum' (temple). Diptote, because in only two, as 'Iuppiter' (Jupiter). Monoptote, because they use only one case, as 'frugi' (thrifty). VIII. ON THE PRONOUN. [1] The pronoun is so named because it is put in place of the noun, lest the noun itself cause distaste when it is repeated. For when we say, 'Virgil...

...wrote the Bucolics,' we add a pronoun, 'he himself wrote the Georgics'; and thus the variety of expression both removes distaste and introduces adornment. [2] Now pronouns are either definite or indefinite. Definite pronouns are so called because they define a certain person, as 'ego' (I); for you at once understand me. They are called indefinite because they do not designate certain persons. For it is of absent...

...and uncertain persons it is used, as 'quis' (who), 'quae' (which, fem.), 'quod' (which, neut.). They are called less-than-definite because they make mention of a person already known, as 'ipse' (himself), 'iste' (that one); for it is certain of whom one speaks. [3] Possessives are so named because they show that we possess something. For when I say 'meus' (mine), 'tuus' (yours), I determine that something is mine or yours. Relatives are so called because to a question...

...that they refer, as when 'who is it?' is asked, the answer is 'it is he.' Demonstratives, because they have the meaning of pointing out. For by them we point out someone present, as 'hic' (this man), 'haec' (this woman), 'hoc' (this thing): these three are also named articles. [4] Articles, moreover, are so called because they are bound tight to nouns, that is, joined together, as when we say 'this orator.' Now between the article and the pronoun there is this...

...difference: that it is an article when it is joined to a noun, as 'this wise man'; but when it is not joined, it is a demonstrative pronoun, as 'this (masc.) and this (fem.) and this (neut.).' [5] Now all pronouns are either primary or derived. They are called primary because they draw their origin from nowhere else. These are twenty-one. The definite are three: 'ego' (I), 'tu' (you), 'ille' (he). The indefinite are seven:

'quis' (who), 'qualis' (of what kind), 'talis' (of such a kind), 'quantus' (how great), 'tantus' (so great), 'quotus' (which in order), 'totus' (whole). The less-than-definite are six: 'iste' (that), 'ipse' (himself), 'hic' (this), 'is' (that one), 'idem' (the same), 'sui' (of himself). The possessives are five: 'meus' (my), 'tuus' (your), 'suus' (his own), 'noster' (our), 'vester' (your, pl.). The rest are called derived, because they exist as derived and compounded from these, as 'quispiam' (someone), 'aliquis' (anyone), and the rest. IX. ON THE VERB. [1] The verb (verbum) is so named because it resounds with beaten...

...air resounds, or because this part of speech is frequently employed in discourse. Verbs, moreover, are signs of the mind, by which men mutually show forth their thoughts in speaking. And just as the noun signifies a person, so the verb signifies the deed and word of a person. In the person of the verb there is the signification of the one acting and the one being acted upon. For 'scribo' (I write) is a person's deed. Likewise 'scribor' (I am written)...

...indicates a person's deed, but that of the one by whom it is suffered. [2] There are two kinds of verbs: those of the grammarians and those of the rhetoricians. The grammarians' verbs fall into three tenses: past, present, future, as 'he made' (fecit), 'he makes' (facit), 'he will make' (faciet). But among the rhetoricians the whole of discourse is called 'verba' (words), as in 'he won us over with good words,' 'he had good words,' where there are not only verbs that fall into three tenses,

...but the whole is discourse. The species of verbs are: forms, moods, conjugations, and voices [and tenses]. [3] The forms (formae) of verbs are so called because they shape (informent) us toward each particular thing. For through them we show what we are doing. [For] the meditative is named from the sense of one deliberating, as 'lecturio' (I wish to read), that is, 'I want to read.' The inchoative, coming after deliberation, is named from the token of one beginning, as

'calesco' (I grow warm). The frequentative is named from doing something more often, as 'lectito' (I read repeatedly), 'clamito' (I keep shouting). For the forms hold to the sense, the moods to the inflection. For you do not know what inflection is unless you have first learned what the sense is. [4] The moods (modi) are so named from the manner (quemadmodum) in which they exist in their significations. For the mood is called indicative because it has the signification of one who points out, as 'lego' (I read). The imperative, because

...it has the sound of one commanding, as 'read!' (lege). The optative, because through it we wish to do something, as 'would that I might read' (utinam legerem). The subjunctive, because something is joined (coniungitur) to it in order that the utterance may be complete. For when you say 'when I cry out' (cum clamem), the sense hangs unfinished; but if I say 'when I cry out, why do you think I keep silent?' the sense is complete. [5] The infinitive [mood] is so named because, while it defines the tenses,

...it does not define the person of the verb, as 'to cry out' (clamare), 'to have cried out' (clamasse). But if you add a person to it: 'I ought, you ought, he ought to cry out' (clamare debeo, debes, debet), it becomes as it were definite. It is called impersonal because it lacks the person of a noun or pronoun, as 'it is read' (legitur): you add the person 'by me,' 'by you,' 'by him,' and it is fully understood. But the infinitive mood lacks only the person of the verb; the impersonal, however, lacks that of a pronoun...

...or noun's person. [6] The conjugation (coniugatio) is so named because through it many things are joined together (coniungantur) into one sound. For it teaches in what syllable the future tense ends, lest through inexperience someone should say 'legebo' instead of 'legam' (I shall read). Of these, the first and second send the future tense into '-bo' and '-bor'; the third into '-am' and '-ar.' [7] The voices (genera) of verbs are so called because they beget (gignant). For to the active

...you add an R and it begets the passive; and again from the passive you remove the R and it produces the active. The active verbs themselves are so called because they act, as 'verbero' (I beat); [and] the passive, because they are acted upon, as 'verberor' (I am beaten); the neuter, because they neither act nor are acted upon, as 'iaceo' (I lie), 'sedeo' (I sit). If you add the letter R to these, they do not sound like Latin. The common verbs are so called because they both act and are acted upon, as 'amplector' (I embrace). These,

...likewise, once the letter R is set aside, are not Latin. The deponent verbs are so called because they lay aside (deponunt) the future-tense participle of passive signification, which ends in '-dus,' as 'gloriandus' (to be gloried in). X. ON THE ADVERB. [1] The adverb (adverbium) is so named because it comes to (accedat) the verb, as for instance 'read well' (bene lege): 'well' (bene) is the adverb, 'read' (lege) is the verb. Hence, then, it is called adverb, because it is always to the verb