Etymologies & Works 1 part 5/8

must be marked as a diphthong. [5] 'Equus,' which is an animal, is to be written with E alone. 'Aequus,' which means 'just,' is to be written with the diphthong AE. 'Exsul' ought to be written with an added S, since one is called an 'exsul' (exile) who is 'extra solum' (outside his own soil). 'Exultat' is better written without the letter S; for since the letter X itself is composed of C and S, how, when the S is already in it, can another be added to it again? [6] 'Aequor' is

to be written with a diphthong, since the word is formed from 'aqua' (water). [7] 'Forsitan' is to be written with an N at the end, because its full form is 'si forte tandem.' [8] 'Fedus,' which means 'deformed' (foul), is to be written with E alone; 'foedus,' which means 'a pact,' is to be written with the diphthong OE. [9] 'Formosus' is written without an N, since it is named from 'forma' (beauty); or else also from 'formus,' that is, 'warm';

for the heat of the blood produces beauty. 'Gnatus,' which means 'son,' is to be written with a G, since it comes from 'generatus' (begotten). [10] H, which is the letter of aspiration, in Latin is joined only to vowels, as in 'honor,' 'homo,' 'humus' (humility). It is aspirated with consonants also, but only in Greek and Hebrew names. The interjections 'heus' and 'heu' are to be written with an H

are to be written. [11] Some used to think that the letter I, when placed between two vowels, was written twice, as in 'Troia' and 'Maia.' But reason does not permit this, for three vowels are never written in a single syllable. Rather, the letter I placed between two vowels is regarded as a double consonant. [12] 'Id,' a pronoun of the neuter gender, is written with a D, from that which is 'is, ea, id,' because it forms

'idem.' But if it is a verb of the third person, it will be marked with a T, from that which is 'eo, is, it,' because it forms 'itur.' [13] The ancients used to prefix the letter K whenever an A followed, as in 'kaput,' 'kanna,' 'kalamus.' But now only 'Karthago' and 'kalendae' are written with it. All Greek names, however, whatever vowel follows, are to be written with a K. [14]

'Laetus' is written with a diphthong, since 'laetitia' (joy) is named from 'latitudo' (breadth), whose opposite is 'tristitia' (sadness), which produces narrowness. Sometimes, moreover, we use the letter L in place of the letter D, as 'latum' for 'datum' and 'calamitatem' for 'cadamitatem'; for 'calamitas' (calamity) took its name from 'cadendo' (falling). [15] Whether 'maxumus' or 'maximus,' and if there are any similar cases, how they ought to be written

has been inquired into. Varro relates that Caesar was accustomed to pronounce and write words of this kind with an I. Hence, on account of the authority of so great a man, a custom was established that 'maximus,' 'optimus,' and 'pessimus' be so written. [16] 'Malo' is to be written with a single L, since it stands for 'magis volo' (I prefer). 'Malle' with a double LL, since it is 'magis velle.' 'Nolo' likewise with a single L; and 'nolle' with a double L. 'Nolo'

is 'nevolo,' and 'nolle' is 'nevelle.' [17] 'Os,' if it signifies the face or a bone, must be written with O alone; if it signifies a person, an H must be prefixed. [18] 'Ora,' of boundaries, is written with O; 'hora,' of days (hours), with an H. 'Onus,' if it comes from 'onus' (a burden), is written with O alone; if from 'honor,' with the aspiration H. [19] 'Praepositio' and 'praeterea' are to be written with a diphthong. But 'pene,' which

is a conjunction, is written with E; 'poena,' which means punishment, with OE. [20] The letter Q is rightly used only when a U immediately follows it, and one or more other vowels are joined to it so as to make a single syllable. Other words are written with a C. [21] 'Quae,' a pronoun, is to be written with an A; 'que,' a conjunction, without an A. 'Quid' is written with the letter D when it is a pronoun; with

a T when it is a verb: its primary form is 'queo, quis, quit' and in composition 'nequeo, nequis, nequit.' [22] 'Quod,' when it is a pronoun, is to be written with a D; when it is a numeral, with a T, since 'totidem' is written with a T. 'Quotidie' is to be written with a Q, not with a C, so that it may mean 'quot diebus' (on however many days). [23] The letter R has a communion with the letter S. And so among the ancients it was said 'honos,'

'labos,' 'arbos'; now we say 'honor,' 'labor,' 'arbor.' [24] 'Sat' ought to be written with a T, since its full form is 'satis.' 'Sed' ought to be written with a D. For among the ancients 'sed' was said 'sedum'; we have cut off the two final letters. [25] 'Tamtus,' like 'quamtus,' used to have an M in the middle; for they come from 'quam' and 'tam,' whence also 'quamtitas,' 'quamtus,' 'tamtus.' [26]

The interjection 'vae' is to be written with an A; the conjunction 've' without an A. [27] 'Xps' (Christ), since it is Greek, is to be written with an X; so also 'Xrisma' (Chrism). [28] Only Greek names are written with the letters Y and Z. For although 'iustitia' sounds the letter Z, nevertheless, because it is Latin, it must be written with a T. So too 'militia,' 'malitia,' 'nequitia,' and other such words. [29] In doubtful words, too,

it was the custom of the ancients that, when the same letter had one meaning when shortened and another when lengthened, they placed an apex over the long syllables; for example, that it might be distinguished whether 'populus' meant a poplar tree or a multitude of people, it was marked with an apex. So too, where consonant letters were doubled, they set a 'sicilicus' above, as in 'cella,' 'serra,' 'asseres.' For the ancients did not double

the letters, but placed sicilici above them; by which mark the reader was warned that the letter was to be doubled. XXVIII. ON ANALOGY. [1] 'Analogy' in Greek is called in Latin the 'comparison' or 'proportion' of similar things. Its force is this: that what is doubtful may be referred to something similar which is not doubtful, and that uncertain things may be proved by certain ones. Now the comparison of analogy is gathered in eight ways:

that is, by quality, comparison, gender, number, form, case, the endings of similar syllables, and the similarity of tenses. [2] If any one of these is lacking, it is no longer analogy (that is, similarity), but anomaly (that is, outside the rule), as 'lepus' (hare) and 'lupus' (wolf). Everything agrees, but they differ in case; for the one forms 'lupi,' the other 'leporis.' For

it is regular that, when you inquire whether 'trames' (path) is masculine or feminine, it is similar in its whole declension to 'limes,' and so it will be masculine. [3] Likewise, if you believe 'funis' (rope) to be of uncertain gender, it is similar to 'panis' (bread) in declension, and so it will be masculine. Likewise from the comparison of positive degrees, as if you say 'doctus,' 'magnus': they are positives and similar to themselves. It is done also

by diminution, for instance, the diminutive 'funiculus' shows that 'funis' is masculine, just as 'marmusculum' indicates that 'marmor' (marble) is of the neuter gender. [4] For the gender that a word has in its principal form it usually has in its diminutive, yet not always, as 'pistrinum,' 'pistrilla.' But since we ought to know the declension from the position (that is, the primitive form), we should gather the gender from the diminutive.

XXIX. ON ETYMOLOGY. [1] Etymology is the origin of words, when the force of a verb or noun is gathered through interpretation. Aristotle called this 'symbolon,' Cicero 'adnotatio' (annotation), because it makes known the names of things and words by a given example; for instance, 'flumen' (river), because it grew by flowing, is said to be named from flowing. [2] Knowledge of it often has a necessary use in

its own interpretation. For when you see whence a name has arisen, you understand its force more quickly, since the examination of anything is clearer once its etymology is known. Not all names, however, were imposed by the ancients according to nature; but some were imposed according to whim, just as we too sometimes give names to our slaves and possessions according to what pleases our will. [3]

Hence it is that the etymologies of all names are not to be found, because some received their designations not according to the quality by which they were generated, but according to the arbitrary choice of human will. Now the etymologies of names are given either from cause, as 'reges' (kings) from ruling and acting rightly; or from origin, as 'homo' (man), because he is from 'humus' (earth); or from contraries, as 'lutum' (mud) from 'lavando' (washing),

since mud is not clean; and 'lucus' (a grove), because, being shady with dark shade, it gives little light. [4] Some words also are formed from the derivation of names, as 'prudens' (prudent) from 'prudentia' (prudence); some also from sounds, as 'garrulus' (a chatterer) from 'garrulitas' (chattering); some have arisen from a Greek etymology and been declined into Latin, as 'silva' (forest), 'domus' (house). [5] Others also drew their designations from the names of places, cities, or rivers,

and took their designations. Many, too, are named from the language of various peoples. Hence their origin is scarcely discerned; for there are very many barbarian names, unknown to Latins and Greeks. XXX. ON GLOSSES. [1] A gloss takes its name from a Greek interpretation of language (for 'glossa' in Greek means 'tongue'). Philosophers call it an 'adverbium,' because it designates that word about which inquiry is made by one single word,

For it declares in one word what that thing is, as: 'conticescere' (to fall silent) is from 'tacere' (to be silent). [2] Likewise (Virgil, Aeneid 10:314): 'Latus haurit apertum'; here 'haurit' means 'he strikes through.' Likewise when we say that 'terminus' means 'finis' (end), or interpret 'populatas' (ravaged) to be 'vastatas' (laid waste); and in general, whenever we make plain the matter of one word by a single word. XXXI. ON DIFFERENTIAE. [1] A differentia is a species

of definition, which the writers of the arts employ concerning one thing and another. For these two, being confused by a certain communion between themselves, are separated by an inserted differentia, through which it is known what each of them is; as when it is asked what the difference is between a king and a tyrant: once the differentia is added, what each is is defined, as, 'a king is moderate and temperate, but a tyrant is cruel.'

For when a differentia has been placed between these two, what each is is known. So too with the rest. XXXII. ON BARBARISM. [1] A barbarism is a word pronounced with a corrupt letter or sound. With a letter, as 'floriet' when one ought to say 'florebit'; with a sound, if the first syllable is lengthened in place of the middle one, as 'latebrae,' 'tenebrae.' It is called a 'barbarism' from the barbarian

peoples, since they did not know the integrity of Latin speech. For each people, having become part of the Romans, transmitted to Rome, together with its wealth, also the faults both of words and of morals. [2] Now between a barbarism and a barbarolexis there is this difference: that a barbarism occurs in a Latin word when it is corrupted; but when barbarian words are brought into Latin discourse, it is called a barbarolexis.

Likewise, when a fault of speech occurs in prose, it is called a barbarism; when in verse, it is called a metaplasm. [3] Now a barbarism occurs both in writing and in pronunciation. In writing, in four ways: if in a word one adds, changes, transposes, or diminishes a letter or a syllable. In pronunciation it occurs in the matter of time-quantities, accents, aspirations, and the rest that follow.

[4] A barbarism occurs through time-quantities if a short syllable is put in place of a long one, or a long in place of a short. Through accents, if the accent is shifted to another syllable. Through aspiration, if the letter H is added where it ought not to be, or removed where it ought to be. [5] Through hiatus, whenever in pronunciation a verse is broken before it is completed, or whenever

a vowel follows a vowel, as 'Musae Aonides.' A barbarism also occurs through mytacisms, iotacisms, and lambdacisms. [6] Mytacism is whenever a vowel follows the letter M, as 'bonum aurum,' 'iustum amicum'; but we avoid this fault either by suspending the letter M or by dropping it. [7] Iotacism is whenever the sound is doubled in the letter iota, as 'Troia,' 'Maia,'

where the pronunciation of those letters will be so slight that a single iota, not two, may seem to sound. [8] Lambdacism is if two L's are pronounced in place of one, as the Africans do, as 'colloquium' for 'conloquium'; or whenever we utter one L too thinly and two too broadly, which is the reverse; for we ought to utter one more broadly and two more thinly. [9] Collision is whenever

the end of the last syllable falls at the beginning of another, as 'matertera.' XXXIII. ON SOLECISMS. [1] A solecism is the incongruous joining together of several words, just as a barbarism is the corruption of a single word. For words joined not by the right rule are a solecism, as if one should say 'inter nobis' for 'inter nos,' or 'date veniam sceleratorum' for

'sceleratis.' [2] Now it is called a 'solecism' from the Cilicians, who, having set out from the city of Soloe (which is now called Pompeiopolis), when, dwelling among others, they confounded their own language and that of the others in a faulty and inconsistent manner, gave the name to the solecism. Whence also those who speak in like manner are said to commit solecisms. [3] A solecism, moreover, among the poets is called a 'schema,'

whenever in a verse it is found to have been made by the necessity of the meter. But when no such necessity is found, the fault of solecism remains. [4] A solecism occurs in two ways: either through the parts of speech, or through their accidents. Through the parts of speech, if we put one part in place of another, for example if we attach prepositions to adverbs. Through accidents it occurs, that is, through those things which

are accidental to the parts of speech, for example through qualities, through genders and numbers, forms and cases. Through all these, then, solecisms arise, just as Donatus set forth. [5] They arise, moreover, from very many kinds. For Lucilius named a hundred kinds of solecism, all of which he who strives to hold the rule of speaking correctly ought rather to avoid than to follow. XXXIV. ON FAULTS. [1] Faults