Etymologies & Works 1 part 4/8

Aeneid 8.83): 'and on the green shore a sow (sus) is seen', lest you say 'ursus' (bear); or for the sake of pronunciation, lest you say 'meta' (goal) short and not lengthened, with a long A, 'meta'; or for distinguishing ambiguity, as 'ergo'. For when the 'go' is lengthened it signifies 'therefore, on account of'; when shortened, a conjunction. XIX. ON THE FIGURES OF ACCENTS. [1] The figures of accents are ten, which by

grammarians applied for the distinctions of words. OXEIA, that is the acute accent, a line drawn upward from the left side toward the right, is made thus: [2] BAREIA, that is the grave, a line laid down from the top of the left toward the right, is made thus: [3] ` PERISPOMENE, that is the circumflex, a line made from acute and grave, is expressed thus: [4] ^ MACHROS, that is the long,

a small rod (virgula), lying flat, thus: [5] BRACHUS, that is the short, is the lower part of a circle, lying thus: [6] U UFEN (hyphen), that is the conjunction, because it joins two words, a rod placed beneath the verse and curved, is made thus: [7] Diastole, that is separation, which on the contrary divides, is the right part of a circle placed under the verse, made thus: [8] Apostrophe, likewise the right part of a circle

set beside the topmost letter, made thus: ), by which mark it is shown that in speech the final vowel is lacking, as 'tribunal' for 'tribunale'. [9] DASEIA, which is interpreted 'aspiration', that is, where the letter H ought to be placed, is marked by such a figure: [10] PSILE, which is interpreted 'dryness' or 'the pure', that is, where the letter H ought not to be, is shown by such a mark: [11]

The figure of these two accents the Latins made from the very letter of aspiration. Hence, if you join these, you have made the same mark of aspiration. Again, if you split its middle apex, you make the DASEIA and the PSILE. XX. ON POINTINGS (positurae). [1] A pointing is a figure for distinguishing the senses through cola and commata and periods, which, when applied in its own order, shows us the sense

the sense of the reading. And they are called 'positurae' either because they are noted by points that are placed (positis), or because there the voice is set down (deponitur) for the interval of the distinction. These the Greeks call THESEIS, the Latins 'positurae'. [2] The first pointing is called the subdistinction; it is also the comma. The following one is the middle distinction; it is also the colon. The last distinction, which closes the whole sentence, is itself the

the period; whose parts, as we have said, are cola and comma; the difference of which is shown by points placed in different positions. [3] For when at the beginning of the delivery the portion is not yet full to the sense, and yet one must draw breath, a comma occurs, that is a little particle of the sense, and a point is placed at the bottom of the letter; and it is called the subdistinction, from the fact that it takes the point below, that is at

the bottom of the letter. [4] But when in what follows the sentence now furnishes sense, yet something still remains of the sentence's fullness, a colon occurs, and we mark the middle of the letter with a point; and we call it the middle distinction, because we place the point at the middle of the letter. [5] But when, delivering by degrees, we now make the full close of the sentence, a period occurs,

and we place the point at the head of the letter; and it is called the distinction, that is disjunction, because it has separated the sentence whole. [6] This indeed among orators. But among poets, where in a verse after two feet a syllable remains, it is a comma, because there after the scansion a cutting-off of the word has been made. But where after two feet nothing of a part of speech remains, it is a colon.

And the whole verse is a period. XXI. ON THE MARKS OF SENTENCES (critical signs). [1] Moreover certain marks of writings existed among the most celebrated authors, which the ancients set to poems and histories for the distinction of writings. A mark is a figure of its own kind, set in the manner of a letter, to show each and every reckoning of a word, of sentences, and of verses. Now marks

are set to verses to the number of twenty-six, which are of the names written below. [2] * The asterisk is placed at those things which have been omitted, so that through that mark the things which seem to be lacking may shine forth. For a star is called ASTER in the Greek tongue, from which 'asteriscus' (little star) is derived. [3] The obolus, that is a rod lying flat, is placed at words or sentences superfluously

repeated words or sentences, or in those places where some reading has been marked as false, so that, like an arrow, it may pierce the superfluous and transfix the false. For an arrow is called OBELOS in Greek. [4] The obolus pointed above is placed in those same passages about which it is doubted whether they ought to be removed or not. [It is marked as false.] [5] ÷ The lemniscus, that is a rod between twin points

lying, is set in those places which the interpreters of Holy Scripture have translated with the same sense but in different words. [6] The antigraphus with a point is placed where in translations a different sense is held. [7] * ⌐ The asterisk with an obolus. This Aristarchus properly used at those verses which were not placed in their own place. [8] The paragraphus is placed to

separate matters from matters which run together in a connected passage, just as in a Catalogue places are separated from places and regions from regions, in a Contest prizes from prizes, and competitions from various competitions. [9] The positura is a figure contrary to the paragraphus and is therefore so formed, because just as the latter marks beginnings, so this one separates ends from beginnings. [10] Ú Cryphia,

the lower part of a circle with a point, is placed in those places where a hard and obscure question could not be opened or solved. [11] ) The antisimma is placed at those verses whose order must be transposed. Thus it is found placed also in the ancient authors. [12] ·) The antisimma with a point is placed in those places where in the same sense there are double verses, and it is doubted which should rather

be chosen. [13] > The diple. This our writers apply in the books of ecclesiastical men to separate or to point out the testimonies of the Holy Scriptures. [14] ·> The diple PERI STICHON. This Leogoras the Syracusan first placed at Homeric verses for the separation of Olympus from heaven. [15] >: The diple PERIESTIGMENE, that is, with twin points. This

the ancients set against those things which Zenodotus of Ephesus had not rightly added, or had removed, or had altered. In these our men too have used it. [16] à The diple OBOLISMENE is interposed to separate the periods in comedies or tragedies. [17] The reversed OBOLISMENE, as often as a strophe and antistrophe is introduced. [18] ß The adverse with an obolus is placed at those things which refer to something

(Virgil, Aeneid 10.88): 'Is it we who try to overturn the Phrygian state from its foundation? we? or he who cast the wretched Trojans before the Achaeans?' [19] The diple obolized above is placed at changed conditions of places and times and persons. [20] The diple straight-and-adverse obolized above is placed when a matter is finished in its own place by a single unit, and it signifies that the following one too is like it. [21]

The ceraunium is placed as often as many verses are disapproved, and are not obolized one by one; for CHERAUNION means a thunderbolt in Greek. [22] The chrisimon. This alone is placed by each person's own will to mark something. [23] (P) Phi and Ro, that is FRONTIS. This is placed, where there is something of obscurity, for the sake of careful attention. [24] The upper anchor is placed where some great matter

is altogether present. [25] The lower anchor, where something has been declared very basely or rather unsuitably. [26] The coronis is a mark placed only at the end of a book. [27] | The alogus is a mark used for faults. [28] There are also other little marks in books for recognizing those things which are set out along the edges of the pages, so that, where the reader finds such a sign in the margin,

returning to the text he may know that there is an exposition of the same discourse or little verse, whose like mark he has found set above. XXII. ON COMMON MARKS (shorthand). [1] Ennius first invented eleven hundred common marks. The use of the marks was that, whatever was said in a plea or in trials, the scribes might write it down, several standing by at once, the parts divided

among themselves, namely how many words and in what order each should take down. At Rome Tullius Tiro, the freedman of Cicero, first devised such marks, but only for prepositions. [2] After him Vipsanius, Philargius, and Aquila, a freedman of Maecenas, added others, one some and another others. Then Seneca, having collected, arranged, and increased the number of them all, produced a work of five thousand. Now they are called marks (notae)

for this reason: that they mark words or syllables by prefixed characters and recall them to the knowledge of readers; and those who have learned them are now properly called notaries (notarii). XXIII. ON JURIDICAL MARKS. [1] Now certain letters in the books of law are marks of their own words, so that the writing may be made quicker and briefer. For it was written, for example, by B and F 'bonum factum' (well done), by

S and C 'senatus consultum' (decree of the senate), by R and P 'respublica' (commonwealth), by P and R 'populus Romanus' (the Roman people), by D and T 'dumtaxat' (only), by a supine (inverted) W the word 'mulier' (woman), by P in its natural position 'pupillus' (male ward), by a P with its head reversed 'pupilla' (female ward), by a single K 'caput' (head, capital), by two K's joined 'calumniae causa' (for the sake of calumny), by I and E 'iudex esto' (let him be judge), by D and M 'dolum malum' (malicious fraud). [2] Of this kind we find very many similar marks in

the ancient books find very many. These marks of law the more recent emperors decreed to be abolished from the codices of the laws, because through them many, crafty of wit, deceived the ignorant; and thus they ordered the letters to be written out in the laws in such a way that they should bring no errors and no ambiguities, but should openly show what was to be followed and what avoided. XXIV. ON MILITARY MARKS. [1] In

the little rolls also, in which the names of soldiers were contained, there was among the ancients a special mark, by which it might be observed how many of the soldiers survived and how many had fallen in war. The mark T (Tau), placed at the head of a little line, designated a survivor; but Theta was set beside the name of each dead man. Whence it also has a dart (telum) through its middle, that is, the sign of death. Of which

Persius says (4.13): 'And he can prefix the black theta to a fault.' [2] But when they wished to signify inexperience, they used the letter Lambda, just as they signified death when they set Theta at the head. In the distribution of pay too there were special marks. XXV. ON MARKS OF LETTERS (ciphers). [1] The ancients also made marks among the letters themselves, so that whatever secretly

they wished to signify to one another through writings, they might write it mutually. Witness is Brutus, who in these letters marked down those things which he was about to do, while others were ignorant of what these letters meant to him. [2] Caesar Augustus too, writing to his son: 'Since,' he says, 'innumerable things happen continually which must be written from one to the other and be kept secret, let us have between us marks, if

you will, such that, when something is to be written in marks, for each single letter we write the following one in this manner: for A, B; for B, C; and so the rest by the same reasoning; but for the letter Z one must go back to a doubled A.' Some also write with words reversed. XXVI. ON MARKS OF THE FINGERS. [1] There are also certain marks of the fingers, and there are marks of the eyes, by which persons silently and at a

distance converse with one another. Just so is the military custom, that as often as the army consents, since it cannot do so by voice, it may signify by the hand. Others, because they cannot by voice, salute by the movement of their swords. [2] Ennius, concerning a certain shameless woman (Naevius, Comedies 75): 'As in a dance, playing at ball, she passes herself round from hand to hand and makes herself common. She holds one, beckons to another; elsewhere her hand is occupied by another; to another'

...he plucks at the foot, hands another a ring to examine, summons another with his lips, sings in concert with yet another; and moreover he conveys messages to others with his finger. And Solomon says (Proverbs 6:13): 'He winks with the eye, presses with the foot, speaks with the finger.' XXVII. ON ORTHOGRAPHY. [1] 'Orthography' in Greek is rendered in Latin as 'correct writing' (for 'ortho' means 'correctly,' and 'graphia' means 'writing'). This discipline

teaches how we ought to write. For just as the art of grammar treats of the inflection of the parts of speech, so orthography treats of skill in writing; for example, 'ad,' when it is a preposition, takes the letter D; when it is a conjunction, it takes the letter T. [2] 'Haud,' when it is an adverb of negation, ends in the letter D and is aspirated at its head; but when it is a disjunctive conjunction, it is written with a T

letter, without aspiration (that is, 'aut'). [3] The preposition 'apud' is written with a D, like 'ad patrem,' since the ancients often used 'apud' for 'ad,' with the two middle letters removed. [4] Sometimes, moreover, certain letters are properly set in place of others. There is a kinship between the letters B and P; for instead of 'Burrus' we say 'Pyrrhus.' C and G

letters have a certain kinship. For while we say 'centum' and 'trecentos,' we afterward say 'quadringentos,' putting a G for the C. Between C and Q there is likewise a kinship; for we write 'huiusce' with a C, but 'cuiusque' with a Q. When 'cum' is a preposition it must be written with a C; but if it is an adverb, with a Q, for we say 'quum lego.' 'Deus' is written with E alone; 'daemon' with the diphthong AE